CONCRETE

by
Ikmalzatul Abdullah

ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE:
Ability to be cast - many different shapes and types of
structures, offsets other disadvantages.
Economical - on-site preparation, local materials,
unskilled labor.
Durable - maintenance-free, generally no protective
coatings.
Fire resistant - can maintain structural integrity.
Energy efficient - requires less energy to produce than
steel.
On-site fabrication.
Aesthetic properties.

DISADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE:
Low tensile strength - very brittle, must be reinforced
with steel to carry the tensile stresses.
Low ductility.
Volume instability - shrinkage and creep.
Low strength-to-weight ratio.

Manufacture of Concrete
Concrete can either be made wholly on
the site or the potential advantaged of
factory production can be partially
secured by the use of ready mixed
concrete or wholly secured by the use of
precast products.

The process of manufacture are:

Checking and storage of materials

Batching
Mixing
Tests on mixed concrete
Formwork and reinforcement
Transport to formwork and placing
Compaction
Curing
Removal of formwork
Protection
Construction joints

Storage of Materials

Storage of materials must prevent deterioration of

cement and contamination and segregation of
aggregates.
Cement must be kept dry.

Paper bags cannot be relied upon to prevent air setting

and resulting lumpiness.
Exceptionally, where it is not certain that cement can be
stored in dry conditions or it can be used soon after
delivery it may be advantageous to use hydrophobic
Portland cement.
Particular care should be taken in storing extra rapid
hardening and ultra high early strength Portland cements
and supersulphated cement.

Contd

High alumina cement should be preferably be kept in a

store separate from Portland cement.
Paper bags should not be stacked more than 4 or 5 feet
high to avoid warehouse set caused by compaction.
Cement should be used in the order in which it was
received.

Aggregates should be kept on clean hand

surfaces and not directly on the ground.

The various sizes of aggregates should be kept

separately and where possible stock piles should be
duplicated so that deliveries can drain for at least
twelve hours before use.

Batching

Accurate batching of cement, aggregates and

water make for saving in cost of designed mixes
by enabling a lower control factor to be employed.
It used to be customary to specify and to batch
cement and aggregates in proportions by volume,
as so called nominal mixes, but volume batching
tends to be inaccurate because both cement and
sand are subject to bulking and coarse aggregate
is difficult to measure accurately by volume.
Cement in batched by weight and normally and
preferably the aggregate also.

Contd

Cement

Varies in bulk density from about 1120-1600kg/m3

according to the way in which the container is filled.
Where a weighing device is not available, the bag can
be used as a unit.

Sand

Dry and wet sands have the same volume, but damps
sand has a greater volume and if sand is measured by
volume and allowance is not made for bulking,
concrete mixes may be seriously under sanded.

Contd

Coarse aggregate

Deep and narrow gauging boxes reduce error in

volume batching but the method is laborious.
Properly maintained weight batching machines
are very accurate and easy to use.

Water

As the water:cement ratio determines the

strength and durability of concrete, the amount of
water contained in each batch is critical.
The gross weight of water (kg) per batch is
water:cement ratio x weight of cement (kg).

Contd

The tanks fitted to the larger mixers have gauges which

enables a measured quantity of water to be added to each
batch.
This must be adjusted from time to time to allow for the
water contained in the aggregate.
During the progress of work if changes in the moisture
contents of aggregates are small, provided the quantities
of cement and aggregates and the type of aggregates
remain the same, the quantity of added water can be
adjusted so as to maintain the workability indicated by a
slump test on the first batch.

Mixing

Concrete may be mixed on the site, or at works for

precast concrete or for delivery to the site a ready
mixed concrete.
On site mixers
The most commonly used type are batch mixers of
the single compartment drum type.

Contd

Truck mixers
Some mixers incorporate weight batching equipment and
attachments for hand scrapers to assist in loading the
hoppers and normally 200 liter and larger mixers can
measure volumes of water.
So that water is evenly distributed, it should enter the
mixer before or at the same time as the other materials.
The proportion of coarse aggregate should be reduced for
the first batch or two each day to compensate for the loss
of mortar which sticks to the blades and inside the drum.
The time required for thorough mixing varies according to
the characteristics of the mix and of the mixer.

Contd

When the concrete has been mixed the complete

contents of the drum should be discharged in one
operation to avoid segregation of the larger stones.
Mixer should be thoroughly washed out and cleaned
daily and even after short stoppages, to prevent
caking with hardened concrete which reduces the
machines efficiency and they should be cleaned out
when the type of cement is changed.

Tests On Mixed Concrete

Consistency of Manufacture

The slump test, which is easy to carry out, indicates variations

in the shape of grading of aggregate, or in the proportion of
water being used.

Workability

The slump test gives an approximate indication of the

workability of Portland cement mixes which are neither too
stiff nor too plastic.
The compaction factor test is more accurate, but neither test
is suitable where the maximum size of aggregate exceeds
40mm.

Contd
Compression Tests

Cubes made before and during the placing of concrete on

the site are tested in crushing machines to give some
indication of the strength which would be acquired by the
actual work.

Preliminary Cube Tests

Preliminary compression tests require very accurate control

of materials and test conditions.
The materials intended to be used are mixed in the
laboratory in the proportions to be used in the work.

Formwork

Formwork provides the shape and surface texture of

concrete members and supports them during setting and
hardening.
It must be grout-tight, true in line, level, face and profile
and strong enough to accept all constructional loads
including those resulting from mechanical compaction.
Formwork is the best constructed in units for easy
erection, striking without damaging the concrete and so
that it can be reused.
The faces of formwork should be treated with mould oil
to give a clean release but avoiding excess oil which
stains concrete and which may interfere with bond for
plaster.

Formworks

Reinforcement

Benefits

Higher load capacity

More controlled failure

Reinforcing bar is placed in region of

tensile stress.

Contd

Reinforcement should comply with the following

standards:

BS 4449:1978 hot rolled steel bars for reinforcement of

concrete
BS 4482:1982:1969 hard drawn mild steel wire for the
reinforcement of concrete
BS 4486:1980 hot rolled, and hot rolled and processed
high tensile alloys steel bars for prestressing of concrete
BS 4757:1971 nineteen wire steel strand for prestressed
concrete
BS 4483:1969 steel fabric for the reinforcement of
concrete
BS 5896:1980 high tensile strength steel wire strand for
the prestressing of concrete

Reinforceme
nt

Reinforceme
nt

Contd

Reinforcement should be free from loose mill

scale, loose rust, oil or grease.
Reinforcement should be placed in the exact
positions shown on the drawings and the
specified cover ensured, eg by spacers fixed
to the reinforcement.
Great care should be taken to avoid damage
or disturbance to formwork when positioning
reinforcement.

Transport to Formwork and

Whether concrete is moved from the mixer by lorries,
Placing
barrows, dumpers, mechanical skips or pipeline it is

important that the composition of the mix is not

altered and that segregation does not take place.
All pant, chutes, etc should be thoroughly cleaned
after use without allowing the waste water to enter
formwork.
Wet mixes are particularly likely to segregate and
where possible, these should not be dropped into
position.
Chutes should be arranged so that a continuous flow is
discharged at the lower end.
Immediately, before concrete is placed, formwork
should be thoroughly cleaned out and formwork and
reinforcement should be re-checked.

Compaction

Trapped air which should not exceed about 2 % when

concrete is placed must be released if the maximum
density associated resistance to chemicals, water
vapor, frost and abrasion is to be be obtained.
Thorough compaction is also very important where
concrete faces are to be exposed to view.
Air is very liable to be trapped against form faces and
at joints between hardened and newly placed
concrete.
Compaction should commence as soon as possible
once water has been added to concrete although so
long as it remains possible to fully compact concrete
by the means available, delay in doing so may not be
serious up to perhaps two hours even in cold
weather.

Curing

In order to obtain the desired strength,

compacted concrete must be free from
physical disturbance,

Water must be retained in the concrete

Temperature must be controlled

Removal of Formwork

Formwork must be left in position, and the supports

maintained, until concrete is sufficiently strong to safely
support its own weight and any loads which may be put on it.
Concrete should have a cube strength at least twice the
stress to which the concrete is likely to be subjected at the
time of striking.
The times which should elapse before formwork is remove
vary considerably according to the cement used,
temperature of the concrete during curing and other factors.

Contd

Supports should be eased away uniformly and very slowly so that

the load is not suddenly imposed on partly hardened concrete.
Formwork must be stripped carefully to avoid damage to arises
and projections, especially where vertical surfaces are exposed
within 12 hours of casting.

Protection

After stripping formwork, it may be necessary to protect concrete

for damage by knocks, shocks and vibration; from drying in hot
weather and from loss of heat in cold weather.

Construction Joints

Whenever concreting is interrupted the construction which

are inevitable formed are potentially weak.
They may allow water to enter and they are always visible,
particularly after a period of weathering.
The positions and design of construction joints should
therefore be decided at an early stage.
Joints should be straight, either vertical or horizontal, and in
walls in positions related to window openings and other
features.
Generally, in columns, construction joints are made as near
as possible to the beam haunching and in beams and slabs
within the middle third of span.
Vertical joints should be formed against temporary but rigid
stop boards which must be designed to allow reinforcement
to pass through.

Lightweight Concrete

Examples:
Aerated concretes
Lightweight aggregate concretes
No fines concretes
Weighing less than 1920kg/m3
Are made in densities down to about 160kg/m3.
Advantages of using lightweight concrete than dense concrete
Savings in costs of handling materials and of supporting
structures
Superior thermal insulation and fire resistance
Superior sound absorption of unplastered surfaces; some o
which offer better key for plaster
Usually easy to cut, chase and nail into.

Contd

Compressive strength and the modulus of elasticity are

reduced (although the latter reduction may improve
resistance to mechanical damage)
The moisture movement of aerated and lightweight
aggregate concretes is high.
Reversible moisture expansion is usually as great as the
initial drying shrinkage.
Protection of reinforcement against corrosion may reduce
Sound insulation reduces as density of concrete
decreases.

Three Main Ways

Lightweight concretes are made in 3 main ways:

Aerated or cellular concrete

Minute and non communicating cells are formed by

introducing air or gas into a matrix of cement with, in all
but the lightest non structural concretes, ground sand,
pulverized fuel ash or other fine siliceous material as fine
aggregate.
Lightweight aggregate concrete

Made by incorporating a cellular coarse aggregate

No fines concrete
Made by omitting the fine aggregate and the smaller
particles of coarse aggregate so as to leave voids.

1. Aerated Concrete

Have the lowest density, thermal conductivities and

strengths.
Like timber, they can be sawn, screwed and nailed, but
they are non combustible.
For work in situ, the usual methods of aeration are by
mixing in a stabilization foam or by whipping air in with
the aid of an air entraining agent.
Full strength development depends upon the reaction of
lime with the siliceous aggregate, and for equal densities
the strength of high pressure steam cured concrete is
about twice that of air cured concrete.
No further curing is required after autoclaving.
Blocks are usually cut at works to the required size from
larger units.

Strength

Strength sufficient for structural work are obtainable

but the modulus of elasticity of aerated concrete is
about one tenth of dense concrete.
Creep at working loads is not thought to be greater.

Moisture Movement

The moisture movement of cement not being

restrained by rigid aggregate, air cured aerated
concrete has very high drying shrinkage and without
frequent shrinkage joints, this concrete if placed in situ
would crack.

Weather Resistance

Unprotected single leaf aerated concrete

block walls have good resistance to rain
penetration and to frost.
However, for densities of 825 and 497
kg/m3 water absorptions are about four
times and eight times greater than that of
dense concrete and external rendering is
desirable wherever reinforcement is present.

Thermal Insulation

Thermal conductivities of 0.084 W/m degree Celsius

and less are obtainable in dry concrete.
External surfaces should be rendered or otherwise
protected to avoid serious loss of thermal insulation
due to absorption of water.

Fire Resistance

Fire resistance as defined by BS 476: Part 8: 1972

tests, is good, for example for walls without finishes:

102mm loadbearing wall 2 hours

102mm non loadbearing wall
4 hours
142 mm non loadbearing wall
6 hours

Hardness

Aerated concrete is much softer than dense concrete

Requires protection from abrasion in the lower parts of walls
and in similar positions.
It can be easily sawn, worked with simple tools and nailed into.
Retention of nails is better cut nails than wire nails, and with
the denser concretes.

2.Lightweight Aggregate
Concretes

Deal with structural applications.

Foamed slag, expanded clay, expanded slate and sintered
pulverized fuel ash concretes are suitable for reinforces
concrete structures with
strengths in compression up to 62 N/mm2
densities 30-40 %
thermal conductivities 50% or more, less than those gravel
concretes.
As with dense aggregate concretes, the strength properties of
lightweight aggregate concretes depend upon:

Type of aggregate
Grading of aggregate
Cement:aggregate ratio
Water:cement ratio
The degree of compaction

Moisture Movement

Drying shrinkage is generally about twice that of dense

concrete.
The poor workability of some lightweight aggregates should be
compensated for by the addition of sand or an air entraining
agent rather than by using a richer mix which would increase
drying shrinkage.
Although the proneness of lightweight concrete to shrink and
crack may be largely offset by its lower modulus of elasticity,
the precautions advised for aerated concrete should be taken.

3. Non Fines Aggregates

Commonly applied in concretes which contain

only a single size 19.0 to 9.5mm coarse aggregate
(either a dense aggregates or lightweight
aggregate) with sufficient cement to join the
particles while leaving voids between them.
The density is about 2/3 to that of dense
concretes made with the same aggregates.
No fines concrete is almost always cast in situ
mainly as loadbearing and non loadbearing walls.

Walls

The surface of no fines concrete provide and excelled

key for external rendering and internal plaster finishes,
which are essential to prevent air movement through
walls with loss of thermal and sound insulation.
Any rain which penetrates external renderings will
travel inwards only 20 to 50mm or so, but damp
courses and construction joints should be designed to
throw such water outwards.

Dry Shrinkage

Aerated and lightweight aggregate concretes

have high drying shrinkage but that of no fines
concrete is usually less even than that of dense
concrete made with the same aggregate.
Also because no fines concrete shrinks more
rapidly than dense concrete, plasters and
renderings are less likely to crack.

Thermal Insulation

The thermal conductivity of no fines gravel aggregate

concrete is comparable to that of typical brickwork.

Sound Insulation

The sound insulation of plastered no fines concrete

walls is slightly inferior to that of solid brick walls of
comparable thickness.

Mixing

Aggregate should be damped before being placed in

the mixer, cement and then sufficient water should
be added so that particles of aggregate are coated
with cement without it bridging between them.

Formwork

Because no fines concrete exerts only about 1/3 of the

pressure exerted by ordinary concrete, formwork can be of
light construction.
It does not require to be grout-tight and if expanded metal
is used the mix can be seen as it placed.

Reinforcement

Light reinforcement is advisable across the angles at

openings.
A coating of cement grout reduces the likelihood of
corrosion.

Placing

Mixes should pour freely.

Some gentle rodding may be needed but vibration
should never be resorted to.
The concrete should be placed evenly in horizontal
layers.
As no fines concrete does not segregate horizontal
joints can be at three storey interval;
Cement slurry should be brushed on immediately
before placing new concrete.

Fixing

Lightweight aggregate concretes may accept nails but

plugs should be built into walls made with dense
aggregates.

The End