AC Drive Basics

AC Drives - Basics & Beyond

28th June2005

Copyright 2005 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved

AC Drive Basics
How Does A Motor Work?
Basic Rules:
1. Current flowing through a
conductor
2. The direction of the current
flow
3. Pass a conductor through a
magnetic field

Magnetic flux around the conductor

Polarity of the magnet
A voltage or current flow

AC Drive Basics
Torque Generated in a motor

Elastic Nature of Magnetic

Lines of Force

Rotor

N
F
N

Rotor Field Created by Induced

Current Flow in Rotor Conductors

Stator Magnetic Field

AC Drive Basics
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

Workhorse of modern Industry

Found in virtually every phase of Manufacturing
One of the Most Common Forms of rotating power

in the World
Consists of two sets of electromagnets One set ,the stator,
housed in motor Frame and other rotor, free to rotate and
supported by bearings and motor end bells.
End Rings

Rotor Bar

Stator

Fan Blades

Rotor
Perforated Lamination disks stacked together and through
careful die casting process Aluminum or Cu Brass Alloy
is filled in the channels and then End rings are formed.

AC Drive Basics
Issue with IM Motor
To change Speed below
and above base speed Smoothly

AC Drive Basics
Operational Issues
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Starting Current - Very High

Power Factor - Poor at light load
Efficiency - Not so good
Speed control - A big Problem
Protection - additional Equipments Required

AC Drive Basics
Constant Speed
Motor

Types
Variable

AC
Motor

Speed
Shaft

AC
Motor

DC
Motor

DC
Gen

Field Control

Mechanical

Vary Pitch Diameter

Rotating DC
Valve

AC
Motor
Constant Speed
Motor

Pump

Hydraulic
Motor

Hydraulic

of
AC
Input

DC
Motor

DC Output

Solid state DC

Adjustable
Fixed DC Bus

Constant
Speed Motor

AC

Motor

Exciter

Eddy current

Diode

Coupling Field

Inverter

Rectifier

AC
Output
Variable
Frequency

AC
Motor

Solid state AC

Speed

AC Drive Basics
Constant
Speed Motor

AC

Variable Speed
Shaft

Motor

Vary Pitch Diameter

Mechanical Variable Speed

Valve
AC
Motor

Pump

Constant Speed
Motor

Hydraulic

Hydraulic

AC Drive Basics

Eddy Current Coupling

Constant
Speed
Motor

AC
Motor

Coupling Field

Exciter
Benefits
Initial cost
Allows torque control
Simple control

Limitations
Heat generation
Size
Power consumption

Variable
Speed
Shaft

AC Drive Basics
These Methods have numerous disadvantages Like
- No ENERGY SAVING,
- No smooth speed variation,
- No power factor improvement.. etc ..

AC Drive Basics

Frequency Drives

AC Drive Basics
Drives Classification - Voltage basis
DC Drives : Not in much use due to Maintenance
related problems associated with DC Motors.

AC drives : Market is zooming up to big targets and getting

new fields of application

AC Drive Basics
DC Drives :Operation and Algorithm
High Bandwidth Current regulator

Current Fdbk
Field
Speed
Ref

Reg.

Field
Bridge

SCR

Cur. Reg.
Armature

Control

Arm
Bridge

Cur. Reg.

M
PG

Current Fdbk
Voltage Fdbk
Speed Fdbk

AC Drive Basics
AC Technology

Current Source Inverter

Variable Voltage Inverter

PWM Inverters
V/Hz Inverters
High Performance Vector Drive Preferred

over CSI & VVI

AC Drive Basics
CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER
AC Input

Variable DC Bus
L
Controlled
Rectifier

Benefits

Regeneration
Synchronous transfer

Inverter

Uses Current Regulator

Limitations

Limited speed range

Poor input power factor is poor
varies with speed
Poor multi-motor capability
Limited ride through capability
May require motor matching
Increased Line Harmonics
Poor Efficiency
Sensitivity to line Transients

AC Drive Basics
CSI WAVEFORMS
Voltage
0
(Line to Neutral)

Current
0
(Line)

Unclipped voltage spikes can cause motor insulation breakdown

Current wave shape creates cogging at low speeds

AC Drive Basics
VARIABLE VOLTAGE INPUT (VVI)
AC Input
L
Controlled
Rectifier

Benefits
Good speed range
Multi-motor
Simple regulator

Variable DC Bus
+
C

Inverter

Uses Voltage Regulator

Limitations
Poor input power factor varies with speed
Limited ride through
Increased input harmonics
Low speed cogging
Poor efficiency (typically 95%)
Sensitivity to line transients

AC Drive Basics
VVI WAVEFORMS
Voltage
0
(Line to Neutral)

Current
(Line)

output voltage is frequently called a six step waveform

cusps in the current waveform cause cogging at lower speeds

AC Drive Basics
PWM INVERTER
AC Input
L

Fixed DC Bus
+
C

Inverter

Diode
Rectifier

Benefits

Limitations

Extra hardware for regeneration to line

Constant input P.F.
Motor noise (solved with IGBTs)
Wide speed range
Possible Cable length limitations (with IGBTs)
High efficiency (97 - 98%)
Ride through options
Open circuit protection
Common bus regeneration
Smooth low speed operation
Vector control performance (optional)

AC Drive Basics
Power Circuit of PWM Drive

AC Drive Basics
Rectifier Section - Conversion From AC to DC

3 phase AC input to
the converter

|
|
One 360 Cycle of Power
6&1
2&3
4&5
|
DC output

5&6 |

1&2

3&4
|

|
|

Positive Diodes

|
5&6 |

| |
60
Negative Diodes

AC Drive Basics
Precharging Arrangement - in low Rated Drives

To Filter
Section

AC Drive Basics
Filter Section - Smoothing of Rippled DC
DC Bus (+)
Rectified
Input

Filtered
Output

DC Bus(-)
Rectified

Filtered

DC output

DC output

OV

Vdc

OV

Vdc = 1.35VL- L
Idc =(1.1 X 746 X Drive HP)/ Vdc

AC Drive Basics
Inverter Section Conversion From DC to AC
Positive DC Bus Line

Filtered DC
Input

PWM Output

Negative DC Bus Line

IGBT fired in a sequence to produce a PWM output

AC Drive Basics
PWM WAVEFORMS

Voltage
0
(Line to Neutral)

Current
(Line)

AC Drive Basics
Generation of PWM WAVEFORMS

Triangle
Generator

Modulation
Generator

AC Drive Basics
Sine Weighted PWM Pulses

AC Drive Basics
Sine Weighted PWM

AC Drive Basics
SPEED CONTROL
AC Motor

120 x Applied Frequency

RPM =
Number of Poles per Phase
e.g for a 4 POLE & 50 Hz FREQUENCY
120 X 50
RPM = ----------- = 1500
4

AC Drive Basics
Slip
0

750

60 RPM
Slip

1440
Base
Speed

Rotor Speed = Synchronous Speed - Slip Speed

1500
Sync
Speed

AC Drive Basics
TORQUE Control
In an AC motor, torque varies by:

T = K x

V
F

x I

Line

Where : V/F proportional to Motor Flux

I is current drawn by the motor

PLAY WITH V/F RATIO TO GET HIGHER STARTING TORQUE

AC Drive Basics
Why Voltage varies as frequency is changed
1). V/F proportional Rated (Motor Rated Flux)
If
If

> Rated (What Happens?)

< Rated (What Happens?)

2). Impedance/Reactance Issue

X L 2 fL

2
s

XL

2
S

XL is dominant above 3-5

hertz
Since I =V/Z; If we increase or decrease the applied frequency we must also
increase or decrease the applied voltage accordingly.

3). To keep the torque Constant as T

V/F Ratio

AC Drive Basics
600

Motor Operating Characteristics

Cu
rre
n

Starting Current

400

% Current
and
% Torque

t Break down torque

(peak Torque)

Starting torque
(Break over Torque)

Rated Torque
at rated FLA.

Pull UP torque
(DIP Torque)

No Load
Synchronous
speed

200

100

Torque

0
500

900

Speed (RPM)

1800RPM
1725

1750

Base
speed

AC Drive Basics
Torque & Speed Curve without Drive
Breakdown Torque

Percent Torque

400

Operating Range
of Variable Frequency
Drives

300
200
100

20
40
60
80
100
Percent Synchronous Speed

AC Drive Basics
Torque / Speed with drive applied
Break down torque
(peak Torque)

Torque

200

% Current
and
% Torque

Current

100

Rated Torque
at rated FLA.

0
500

900

1800RPM
1725

Speed (RPM)
75RPM Slip

75RPM Slip

AC Drive Basics
0 to Twice Base Speed Operation
Torque
CT range

CHP

Peak

1
Tpeak =
N2

.64

Rated

.44
.33

Speed (Multiple of Base)

Base

1.25

1.5

.25

1.75

AC Drive Basics

Motor or Torque Control Technologies

AC Drive Basics
Motor Control Technologies
Volts / Hertz Sensorless
Vector

Speed Regulator

Current Limit

Conveyor

Speed Regulator

Flux
Vector

Speed Regulator

Field
Oriented

Torque Regulator Speed Regulator

Torque Regulator

Advanced
Current Limit

Current Regulator
based on
Estimated Values

High Bandwidth
Current Regulator

Mixer
Extruder

Converting

Converting

Parameter Selectable (Application Based)

AC Drive Basics
Volts/Hertz Control

takes a speed reference and varies Voltage and Frequency

Current Feedback

V/Hz Control
INVERTER

Speed Ref

CURRENT
CURRENT
LIMIT
LIMIT

Elec. Freq

Frequency Ref

V/Hz

V Ref

VOLTAGE Gate
CONTROL Signals

MOTOR

Current Limit monitors

motor current and alters
frequency command

Electrical Frequency

Slip Frequency

Slip Compensation alters frequency

Voltage Feedback
reference
during load changes

SLIP
ESTIMATOR

The drive monitors total current - no current resolver, Cannot

distinguish between Id from Iq (Torque Capability limited)

AC Drive Basics
Volts/Hertz Control

Notice that the ability of the drive to maintain high torque output
at low speeds drops off significantly below 3 Hz

AC Drive Basics
Volts/Hertz Control
Shock Load

Can not keep the shaft speed at desired level when subjected to shock loads.
However Drives with slip compensation feature correct for extra load but the dynamics are
somewhat limited.

AC Drive Basics
Vector Definition ?

To know the direction as well as magnitude of a certain

quantity

Vector Drive Definition

The ability to independently identify and control the flux and
torque producing components of current in a motor for the
purpose of accurate torque and power control.

ITotal = (IReal) 2 + (IReactive) 2

AC Drive Basics
DC Motor Model

DC

DC
Load 2

If

IaIa
Z

Load 1

Ia

Ia = Torque Producing Current (Armature Current)

If = Flux Producing Current (Field Current)

T = K X X Ia X Sin (d)
d = 900

If

a*sin (d)

AC Drive Basics
AC Motor Model

AC

AC
Is

Load 2

Is

Iq
Id

Load 1
Is

Iq
Iq = Torque Producing Current
Id = Flux Producing Current
Is = Total Stator Current

T = K X X Ia X Sin (d)
d = Varies

Id

K Id * Iq * sin(d)

AC Drive Basics
Sensorless
Volts / Hertz
Vector

Speed Regulator

Current Limit

Conveyor

Speed Regulator

Flux
Vector
Speed Regulator

Field
Oriented

Torque Regulator Speed Regulator

Torque Regulator

Advanced
Current Limit

Current Regulator
based on
Estimated Values

High Bandwidth
Current Regulator

Mixer
Extruder

Converting

Converting

AC Drive Basics
Sensorless Vector Control
Current Feedback - Total

CURRENT
RESOLVER

Torque I Est.

Current Feedback

V/Hz Control
INVERTER

Speed Ref

Frequency Ref

CURRENT
LIMIT

V/Hz

Elec. Freq

V Ref

VOLTAGE Gate
CONTROL Signals

MOTOR

+
Torque I Est.

FLUX
VECTOR
CONTROL
Voltage
Feedback

V Vector

Torque I Est.

Slip Frequency

SLIP
ESTIMATOR

A current resolver that separates flux producing current from torque

producing current
Produces Tmax /Amps of motor Current keeping Flux Current Constant

AC Drive Basics
Sensorless Vector Control

High Starting (Maximum) Torque about 250%

AC Drive Basics
Sensorless Vector Control
Shock Load

Better Dynamic Response to shock loads

AC Drive Basics
Sensorless
Volts / Hertz
Vector

Speed Regulator

Speed Regulator

Flux
Vector
Speed Regulator

Field
Oriented

Torque Regulator Speed Regulator

Torque Regulator
Current Limit

Conveyor

Advanced
Current Limit

Current Regulator
based on
Estimated Values

High Bandwidth
Current Regulator

Mixer
Extruder

Converting

Converting

AC Drive Basics
Flux Vector Control w/ Feedback
Flux I Estimate

CURRENT
RESOLVER
Torque I Estimate

Current Feedback

V/Hz Control
INVERTER
V Mag
Speed Ref

SPEED Torque Current Reference

REG.

CURRENT
REG.

VOLTAGE Gate
CONTROLSignals

VOLTAGE
VECTOR

MOTOR

V Angle
PG

Auto Tune
Parameters
Electrical Frequency

Speed Feedback
Voltage Feedback

Uses Speed & Current Regulator ,

Has a Current Resolver that separates Torque and Flux Currents
Auto - tuning is a must

AC Drive Basics
Flux Vector Control w/ Feedback
Flux Vector Control Torque Vs Speed

Torque

12 5

10

20

30

40

50

60

Speed (Hz)

Much better response at low speeds 2Hz Torque is greater than 150%

AC Drive Basics
Flux Vector Control w/ Feedback
Shock Loads

0.9

Sensorless FOC
Load Removed

Per Unit Quantities

V/Hz
Load
Applied

Encoder FOC
Load Removed

FOC,
FV & SV
Load applied

0.875

0.85

0.825
0

Time (seconds)

Shock load dynamic Response much faster

AC Drive Basics

AC Drive Basics
FORCE-FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL

Excellent Technology to produce as high as 400% Maximum torque

Produces 100% torque at zero speed Key for Hoist Application

AC Drive Basics
FORCE-FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL
FORCE-FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL Torque Vs Speed

Excellent response at low speeds At 1Hz Torque is greater than 250%

AC Drive Basics
FORCE - FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL
0.9
Sensorless FOC
Load Removed

Per Unit Quantities

V/Hz
Load
Applied

Encoder FOC
Load Removed

FOC,
FV & SV
Load applied

0.875

0.85

0.825
0

Time (seconds)

Shock load dynamic Response is Excellent

AC Drive Basics
Vector Vs Field Oriented Control

Vector Control
Acknowledges that motor current is the vector sum of the torque and
flux currents and uses this information to provide better control of motor
speed/torque.

Field Oriented Control

The ability to independently control the flux and torque in a motor for the
purpose of accurate torque and power control.

AC Drive Basics

Benefits from Drives

What Benefits ?

AC Drive Basics
Benefits of VFD

Saves Energy costs

Improves Process operation by Smooth speed control
Improves INPUT Power Factor
Increase Efficiency and Life of mechanical equipment (due to
soft starting)
Lower chances of System disruptions (by lowering current
inrush from 600% to 100-150%)

AC Drive Basics
Benefits of VFD

Flexibility in Starting Current

275

%
Torque

150%-260%

180%

180%

150

115%

75
0
0

AC
Drive

Full Voltage
Starter

Reduced
Voltage Starter

120

%
Current

240

Solid State*
(SMC)

150%

360

480
600

C
B
A

480%
600%

600%
* maximum shown,
adjustable via digital switches

Lower Investment in DG sets

No Penalty From Electricity Board

AC Drive Basics
Benefits of VFD

ACCELERATION RANGE
Seconds
0
AC Drive

15

60

600

30 300

(Adjustable)

Solid State(Load Dependent)

Acceleration Time

WK 2 x hN
308 x T

Where:

Reduced Voltage

WK 2 = Moment of inertia (lb-ft 2)

Full Voltage

(Not Adjustable)

hN

= Change in motor RPM

= Torque required

308

Smooth Start and perfect Control

Constant

AC Drive Basics
Benefits of VFD

STOPPING CHOICES
Coast Soft Ramp D.B. DC Inj.
AC Drive X

Solid State
X

R.V.

F.V.

Speed

Time

Dynamic
DC
Ramp
Braking Injection Stop

Soft

Coast

AC Drive Basics
Benefits of VFD

Protections ??

Complete Protection for motor

Against Over voltage
Overload
Motor Stalling
I2t Protection to Motor
& so on .Just Name.

AC Drive Basics

Drives Save Energy ?

AC Drive Basics
Energy Saving Concepts
Real & Reactive
motor current

Phase A

Real Current Only

Phase B
Phase C

AC Input
Power

PWM VFD

AC Output
Power

Input Current is less than Output since Source Voltage is Constant

Lower demand on distribution system

Power Consumption is proportional to motor speed

AC Drive Basics
Energy Saving Concepts

Auto-Economizer - Extra Saving

Idle Mode Energy Saver
Reduced Load
Automatically fold back Voltage to reduce motor flux

A key in Press Applications - 3-5% Saving

AC Drive Basics
Energy Saving Concepts

Energy Savings
High Efficiency (>97% )
Improves Power Factor to 0.98
Payback within 12 to 24 months for reduced energy consumption

An investment which pays back immediately !

AC Drive Basics
Types of Loads & Energy Savings
Constant Torque (CT)

Variable Torque (VT)

Constant Power (CHP)

AC Drive Basics
Variable Torque
Power (Speed)3
Torque (Speed)2

HP

PRESSURE * FLOW

PRESSURE

AFFINITY LAW

FLOW
HP

SPEED2
SPEED

SPEED3

AC Drive Basics
Variable Torque

P2 = P1 X (N2 / N1)3
P2 = 100HP X (1200 / 1440)3
P2 = 58HP
Power Saved = P1 P2 = 100-58
= 42HP
Multiply this quantity (42HP) by Time of operation and Cost/HP
and get the energy saving on a variable torque applications
Instantly.
20 % REDUCTION IN SPEED REDUCES 45 % ENERGY CONSUMPTION

AC Drive Basics
Variable Torque

Variable Inlet Vane

To reduce the flow from 100% to
60% , input power requirements
are reduced from

100 %

to

62 %

Saves 38%

ID Fan application

AC Drive Basics
Variable Torque

Outlet Damper
To reduce the flow from 100% to
60% , input power requirements
are reduced only from

100 % to

86 %

Saves 14%

ID Fan application

AC Drive Basics
Variable Torque

Variable Speed Drive

Reduction of flow from 100% to
60% , results into Input power
requirements reduction from

100% to 22%
Saves 78% of Energy
The fan curve is changed by
changing the motor speed

ID Fan application
Energy
Saved

AC Drive Basics
Constant Torque

P=2XXNXT

Power (Speed)
Torque is Constant

20 % SPEED REDUCTION SAVES 20 % ENERGY

AC Drive Basics
Constant Torque

P2 = P1 X (N2 / N1)
P2 = 100HP X (1200 / 1440)
P2 = 84HP
Power Saved = P1 P2 = 100-84
= 16HP
Multiply this quantity (16HP) by Time of operation and Cost/HP
and get the energy saving on a Constant torque applications
Instantly.

20 % SPEED REDUCTION SAVES 20 % ENERGY

AC Drive Basics
Constant Torque

Compressors Application
Operates at Lower Avg.
Pressure
Proportional Savings

No Unloading / Loading
Cycles
Less Leakages
Constant Lower Pressure
Process Feedback

Better Motor Efficiency

Higher

Power Factor

Controlled Accel / Decel Time

Lower Starting Torque
Lower Starting Current

AC Drive Basics
Constant Torque
Compressors
Application

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Ksc
6.5
6.1
6.0

Savings Due
to Pressure
Reduction

With VFD
Reqd. Pr.

Time

AC Drive Basics
Constant Power

Power Remains Constant while Torque falls down as speed is

exceeded base value

No Energy Saving

Attention needed for operation as greater speed can damage motor bearings and drive
may not be able to generate required torque at high speed - may lead to motor cogging
condition

AC Drive Basics
Best Features in our Drives

Ambient Temperature of 50 Degree C.

Flexible performance for V/F, SVC or FVC Technology
with embedded ForceTM Feature
400% maximum torque can be achieved in closed loop
As per IEEE 519 -1992
Built in DC Chokes to abate input Harmonics

All Power Devices of 1600V PIV

Built in Software to control the effect of reflected wave
Built in EMC Filters
Excellent Feature of Zero Stacking
Internal family of communications modules
Flexible Human Interface Module

AC Drive Basics
Best Features in our Drives
7th IGBT Chopper is internally Provided
Excellent Feature of Zero Stacking
6KV input transient protection
150% Overload for 60Seconds /200% for 3 Seconds
Complete Output Short Circuit Protection
Compact Size

AC Drive Basics