ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGIES

Transmission Lines

Introduction
Transmission line analysis is used
when
The frequency of operation is
high
The length of the transmission
line is long
The length of the line is an
In general, a line is considered as a
appreciable
fraction
of
the
transmission line if its length exceeds one
signal
wavelength
sixteenth
(1/16) of a wavelength.

What are Transmission

Lines?
A transmission line is a metallic
conductor system that is used to
transfer electrical energy from one
point to another.
Electrical power propagates along
transmission lines in the form of
TEM waves.

Applications of Transmission
Lines

Signal transfer
Pulse generator
Filters and tuned circuits
Provides phase shift and time
delay
Impedance matching

Wave velocity
The

velocity of a wave depends

on the type of wave and the
medium of propagation.
In free space, electromagnetic
waves
travel
c = 299
792at the speed of 8
c
=
3

10
m/s
light.
458 m/s

The

v any
= fwave is given
velocity of

Classifications of
Transmission Lines
BALANCED LINE
Both conductors carry current; e.g. twin-lead
The current in the two conductors are equal in
magnitude but travels in opposite direction
UNBALANCED LINE
One conductor carries the signal while the
other is at a ground potential; e.g. coaxial cable

Balanced lines can be

connected to unbalanced
lines and vice versa using

Classifications of
Transmission Lines
BALANCED LINE
Balance is defined in terms of the
impedances of the two signal conductors
with respect to a reference, which is usually
"ground".
UNBALANCED LINE
An UNBALANCED input or output connects
one of its signal conductors to ground and
has a non-zero impedance at the other
signal conductor.
very popular in consumer electronics,
electronic musical instruments, and low cost
(often called "semi-pro") audio equipment.

Types of Transmission
Lines
Parallel open-wire line
Twin lead
Twisted pair
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Shielded pair
Coaxial lines
Balanced/unbalanced lines

Open-wire Line

characterized by
high radiation losses
and is susceptible to
noise

conductor distance
is between 2 to 6 in.

it is normally
operated in the
balanced mode

Twin Lead

Also known as the ribbon cable

The typical conductor separation
is 5/16 inch.
Commonly used insulators are

Twin Lead

Common applications include TV and antennas.

Typical input impedance is 300 ohms.

Twisted Pair

Two insulated wires are twisted to form

a flexible line without the use of
spacers.
It is not used for high frequencies.
The conductors are twisted together to
reduce interference.

CAT 5 Cable

computer networking cable capable

of handling a 100 MHz bandwidth
Most often used in LANs
Transmits data up to 100 Mbps for a
length of 100 m
consists of four color-coded pairs of
22 or 24 gauge wires terminated
with an RJ-45 connector

Shielded Pair Cable

consists of parallel conductors separated

and surrounded by a solid dielectric
The copper braid isolates the inner
conductor from interference and noise.

The
conductors
are
balanced to
ground.

Coaxial Cable

consists of two concentric conductors

separated by a dielectric
outer conductor copper or
aluminum tube or wire braid
inner conductor wire or small tube
The dielectric may be air, plastic or
ceramic
Coaxial cables are used extensively
for high frequency applications
Limited to unbalanced applications

Coaxial Cables

Types of Coaxial Cable

Rigid or air-filled coaxial line
Flexible or solid coaxial line

Both are relatively immune to external

radiation and can propagate at higher
frequencies than parallel wire line.

Review Question:
The amount of loss in the signal
strength as it propagates
throughout a transmission line is
called
A.
B.
C.
D.

Return loss
SWR
Attenuation
Fading

Review Question:
The unwanted coupling caused
by overlapping electric and
magnetic fields
Cross talk
B. EMI
C. Coupling loss
D. Noise
A.

Review Question:
A measure of the ratio of power
transmitted into a cable to the
amount of power returned or
reflected.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Reflection coefficient
SWR
attenuation
Return loss

Transmission Line
Characteristics
The characteristics of a transmission line
are determined by

Electrical properties
Conductivity of the conductor
Dielectric constant of the insulator

Physical properties
Wire diameter
Conductor separation

Transmission Line Models

Primary Electrical Constants

Series dc resistance (R)
capacitance (C)
Series
inductance (L)
conductance (G)

Shunt
Shunt

Transmission Characteristics
These are the secondary constants
of a transmission line which are
determined from primary constants.

Characteristic impedance, Z0
also called surge impedance

Propagation constant,
It expresses the attenuation and
the phase shift per unit length of a
transmission line.

Characteristic Impedance

It is the ratio of the voltage to current at

any point in an infinitely long
transmission line.

If the line is of infinite

length, then there would
be no reflection and the
impedance is purely
the input impedance
of a finite
resistive.

E
Z0
I

transmission line whose terminals are

shorted.

Characteristic Impedance of
Parallel Wire Transmission Lines
In terms of physical
characteristics
d

276 2s
Z0
log
d
r
120 2s
Z0
ln
r d

Determining the Characteristic

Impedance of a Parallel Transline

Z = R + jL
Y = G + jC
Characteristic
Impedance

R jL
Z0
G jC

Lossy Line Lossless Line

R
Z0
G

L
Z0
C

Primary Constants of Parallel

Wire Transmission Lines
2s
L ln
d

C
2s
ln
d

R 8.34 10

G
2s
ln
d

f
r

s = conductor separation
d = conductor diameter
= permeability
= permittivity
= conductivity

Sample Problem
A transmission line has 2.5 pF of capacitance
per foot and 100 nH of inductance per foot.
Calculate its characteristic impedance.

Ans: Z0 = 200
ohms

Sample Problem
An open-wire line uses wire with a
diameter of 2 mm. What should
the wire spacing be for an
impedance of 150 ?

Ans: 3.5
mm

Characteristic Impedance of
Coaxial Transmission Lines
In terms of physical
characteristics

138 D
Z0
log
d
r
60 D
Z0
ln
r d

Primary Constants of Coaxial

Transmission Lines
D
L ln
2 d

2
C
D
ln
d

R 8.34 10

2
G
D
ln
d

1 1
f
d D

D = outer conductor dia.

d = inner conductor dia.
= permeability
= permittivity
= conductivity

Common Coaxial Cables

Velocity Factor

ratio of the speed of an

electromagnetic wave in a
medium to its speed in vacuum.
1
v
vf
r of air = 1.0006
vf
r
c

r = relative permittivity or dielectric constant

materials commonly used for translines : 1.2

Velocity of Propagation

the velocity at which the signal

propagates in a medium
1
v
LC

v = f

f r

Review Question:

The characteristic impedance of

a cable

Increases with length

Increases with frequency
Increases with voltage
D. None of the above
A.
B.
C.

Review Question:

The velocity factor of a cable

depends mostly on:

the wire resistance

the dielectric constant
The inductance per foot
D. All of the above
A.
B.
C.

Sample Problem
If a coaxial cable uses plastic
insulation with a dielectric
constant r = 2.6 , what is the
velocity factor for the cable?

Ans: vf =
0.62

Sample Problem
If a cable has a velocity factor of
0.8, how long would it take a
signal to travel 3000 kilometers
along the cable?

Ans: t =
12.5 ms

Propagation Constant
j
R

2Z0

ZY
2
LC
v

= propagation constant
= attenuation coefficient (Np/L)
1 Np = 8.686 dB
= phase shift coefficient (rad/L)

Review Question:

Compared to a 300-ohm line, the

loss of a 50-ohm cable carrying
the same power:

Would be less
Would be more
C. Would be the same
D. Cannot be compared
A.
B.

Nonresonant Line

A line terminated with a resistive

load equal to its characteristic
impedance is called a
nonresonant line, matched line
ZL = Z0
or a flat line.

All the energy travelling down

the line is absorbed by the load.
The incident current and voltage

Resonant Line
A transmission line terminated
with a load not equal to its
characteristic impedance.
Reflection occurs in a resonant
line.
Reflected power is the portion of
the incident power
that
is
not
Pr
absorbed by the load.

Pi

Standing Waves
There are two travelling waves in
a transmission line.
From source to load: incident
waves
From the load to source:
reflected waves
The interaction between the
incident and the reflected waves
due to reflection in a mismatched
line creates a pattern of waves

Standing Wave on an Open

Line

Voltage
Current

/4
/
2
No phase reversal for reflected
voltage
180 phase reversal for
reflected current.
The voltage and current
repeats /2.
The impedance is max. at the

Standing Waves on a Shorted

Line

Voltage
Current

/4
/
2
180 phase reversal for
reflected voltage.
No phase reversal for reflected
current
The voltage and current
repeats every /2.
The impedance is min. at the

Review Question:

A voltage maximum occurs

At the end of a shorted line

Quarter wavelength from the end of
a shorted line
C. Half wavelength from the end of a
short line
D. Quarter wavelength from the end of
an open line
A.
B.

The Reflection Coefficient

It is a vector quantity that

represents the ratio of the
reflected wave to the incident
wave.
Er
ZL Z0

Ei
ZL Z0

The maximum (worst case) value

is 1.

Reflection Conditions
Conditi
on

ZL

Description

open

short

total reflection w/o phase

shift
total reflection with
phase shift

Z0

no reflection

(0,

matche
d
mismatc

Review Question:

A negative reflection coefficient

means

The load is greater than the line

impedance
B. The incident and reflected voltages
are in phase at the load
C. The terminal of the line is always
shorted
D. None of the above
A.

Standing Wave Ratio

SWR is a measure of mismatch

between the load and the
characteristic impedance.
Emax Ei Er
When the load is
SWR

purely resistive
Emin Ei Er
1
SWR
1

Z0 ZL
SWR or
ZL Z0

Sample Problem
A cable has a VSWR of 10. If the
minimum voltage along the cable
is 20 volts, what is the maximum
voltage along the cable?

Ans: v =
200 V

Sample Problem
A lossless line has a characteristic
impedance of 50 ohms, but is
terminated with a 75-ohm resistive
load. What SWR do you expect to
measure?

Ans: SWR
= 1.5

Sample Problem
If a cable has an SWR of 1.5, what
will be the absolute value of its
voltage coefficient of reflection?

Ans: =
0.2

More on SWR

The reflected power as a function

of the incident power is given by
the equation

Pr
P
Pi

r
Pi
so that
2

SWR

Pr
Pi

Pr
Pi

conditi
on
ideal
worst

0
1

SW
R
1

Power Absorbed by the Load

This is the difference between

the incident and the reflected
power.

P
L Pi 1

PL

4SWR

1 SWR

Pi

Effects of Mismatch
100 percent of the source power
does not reach the load
Corona can be produced due to
excessive dielectric heating
caused by a high value SWR.
Reflection and subsequent
reflections cause more power
loss.
Reflection causes ghost image
and interference.

Sample Problem
A generator matched to a line with
a voltage coefficient of reflection
equal to 0.2 transmits 100 watts
into the line. How much power is
actually absorbed by the load?

Ans: PL =
96 W

Transmission Line Input

Impedance
ZL Z0 tanh l
Zin Z0
Z0 ZL tanh l
For lossless
lines
ZL jZ0 tanh l
Zin Z0
Z0 jZL tanh l

If ZL = Z0,
then Zin = Z0

For lossless
lines whose l
= /4
2
Z0
Zin
ZL

Input Impedance of Open

Lines

Input
Equivale
Phase
Lengt
Descripti
Impedan
nt
shift in
h
on
ce
circuit
degrees
capacitive, decreases with
L < /4
90
length
series
purely
L = /4 minimum
0
resonant resistive
L > /4 Inductive, Increases with length
90

Input Impedance of Shorted

Lines

Input
Equivale
Phase
Lengt
Descripti
Impedan
nt
shift in
h
on
ce
circuit
degrees
L < /4 inductive, increases with length
90
parallel
purely
L = /4 maximum
0
resonant resistive
capacitive, decreases with
L > /4
90
length

Summary of Transmission Line

Input Impedance Analysis
Lengt
h
L < /4

L = /4

L > /4

OPEN CIRCUIT

SHORT CIRCUIT

capacitive
C decreases with
length
series LC
Zi is resistive &
minimum
inductive
L increases with
length

inductive
L increases with
length
parallel LC
Zi is resistive &
maximum
capacitive
C decreases with
length

Electrical Length and Phase

Shift
The length of a transmission line
in wavelengths as opposed to its
actual physical length.
Lines whose length is not equal
to a wavelength produces a
phase delay equal to
360L

Sample Problem
If a cable has a velocity factor of
0.8, what length of cable is
required for a 90 phase shift at
100 MHz?

Ans: l =
0.6 m

Transmission Line Losses

Major transmission line losses:

Conductor or copper
Radiation loss
Dielectric loss
Coupling

loss

loss

Conductor Loss (I2R Loss)

when a signal passes through a
conductor, some energy is lost in
the form of heat. This loss is
called conductor loss.
This is proportional to the square
root of the line length and
inversely proportional to the
impedance.
Conductor loss is frequency
dependent

Skin Effect
A phenomenon that occurs at
high frequencies where the
current flows on the surface of
the conductor.
This is because of the higher
reactance of the conductor at its
center.
skin effect increases with
frequency

Radiation Loss
The electromagnetic field and
the electrostatic field cause the
conductors to act like an
antenna and radiate energy.
Radiation loss is directly
proportional to the frequency.
Can be minimized by properly
shielding the cable

Dielectric Loss
The potential difference between
the conductors in a transmission
line causes dielectric heating.
This loss is called dielectric loss
and is proportional to the voltage
across the dielectric.
This loss is negligible for air
dielectrics and it increases with
frequency.

Review Question:

How do you call the luminous

discharge that occurs between
the conductors of a transmission
line when the potential
difference between them
exceeds the breakdown voltage?

Arcing
B. Spark
C. Corona
A.

Coupling Loss
This occurs in transmission lines
that are connected together
Discontinuities tend to heat up,
radiate energy and dissipate
power.

Transmission Line Impedance

Matching

Whenever there is a mismatch, standing

waves are created on the line.
A higher value of SWR means a greater
degree of mismatch and hence, greater loss.
To minimize reflection and losses on the line,
the load and the line impedance should be
matched. This is called impedance matching.
This can be done in two ways:
Quarter wavelength transformer
Stub matching

Quarter Wavelength
Transformer

Used to match a line to a purely resistive

load
Z0 Z L

Zin

Z0

ZL

Z0

RL

/
4

Z Z0RL

A quarter wavelength transformer is a

quarter wavelength section of transmission
line that acts like a transformer.

Stub Matching
Used when the load is purely
reactive or a complex impedance.
A transmission line stub is an
additional transmission line
connected in parallel with the
line used to cancel the
susceptance of the load.
Open or short stubs can be used
but shorted stubs are preferred.
Half wavelength lines or shorter

Stub Matching

Review Question

A Smith Chart is used to

calculate

Transmission line impedances

SWR and reflection coefficient
Optimum length of a
transmission line
D. Transmission line losses
A.
B.
C.

Smith Chart

Sample Problem
Using a Smith Chart to analyze a
50-ohm cable, what would be the
normalized value of an impedance
equal to 200 + j50 ohms?

Ans: 4
+j