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Submitted To: Presented By:


Dr. R. M. Patrikar Kapil Soni
Madhuri Borkar
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ð <   
 

ð Data Representation
ð Operations on Data
ð Advantages
ð Physical Realization of Quantum Computing
ð 5 Things Every Quantum computer Needs
ð Limitations
<  

9    

A quantum computer is a machine that performs


calculations based on the laws of quantum mechanics,
which is the behavior of particles at the sub-atomic
level.
<  

The common characteristic of any digital computer is


that it stores bits
ð Bits represent the state of some physical system
ð Electronic computers use voltage levels to represent bits

Quantum systems possess properties that allow the


encoding of bits as physical states
ð Direction of spin of an electron
ð The direction of polarization of a photon
ð The energy level of an excited atom
<  
9 |    

By 2020 we will hit natural limits on the size of


transistors
ð Max out on the number of transistors per chip
ð Reach the minimum size for transistors
ð Reach the limit of speed for devices

Eventually, all computing will be done using some


sort of alternative structure
ð DNA
ð Cellular Automaton
ð Quantum
 

ðñ 0s and ñ 0s, introduction of quantum


computers (Richard Feynmann, David Deutsch,
and Paul Benioff) .

ðñ , Peter Shor¶s factoring algorithm.

ðñ , Lov Grover, searching algorithm.

ðñ , ñ , 200ñ Isaac L. Chuang, developed the world's


first 2-qubit, 3-qubit, 5-qubit and -qubit quantum computer
=  
V Introduction & History

ð !   
ð Operations on Data
ð Advantages
ð Physical Realization of Quantum Computing
ð 5 Things Every Quantum computer Needs
j   

An electron is always in one of two spin states


ðMspin up´ ± the spin is parallel to the particle axis
ðMspin down´ ± the spin is anti-parallel to the
particle axis

Notation:
Spin up:

Spin up:
j  |  
A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of
two states denoted by §  and §. A single bit of this form is
known as a P 
A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy
levels of an atom. An excited state representing |ñ and a
ground state representing |0.
  
   á 
ô   



 

ô
§  §
j     

A single qubit can be forced into a i i of the two states


denoted by the addition of the state vectors:

§6 
§  
§
9here   are complex numbers called probability
amplitudes.
 
§ §§
 §



Probability of |0 § §

2
Probability of |ñ § §

j     
  
   á 
 

§  § §

ðConsider a 3 bit qubit register.


An equally weighted superposition of all possible
states would be denoted by:
  
§6§ § §
  
j  
  


ðô 
  is the ability of quantum systems to exhibit
correlations between states within a superposition.
ðImagine two qubits, each in the state |0 + |ñ (a superposition
of the 0 and ñ.) 9e can entangle the two qubits such that the
measurement of one qubit is always correlated to the
measurement of the other qubit.
=  
V Introduction History

V Data Representation
ð =  !
ð Advantages
ð Physical Realization of Quantum Computing
ð 5 Things Every Quantum computer Needs
ð Limitations
= |   j  

ðDue to the nature of quantum physics, the destruction of


information in a gate will cause heat to be evolved which can
destroy the superposition of qubits.

ô 
<  =
The AND Gate <      !
˜      
"   
˜



  

ðThis type of gate cannot be used. 9e must use


|   i.
|  

ð Quantum Gates are similar to classical gates, but do not have


a degenerate output. i.e. their original input state can be derived
from their output state, uniquely. `  i  i 

ðThis means that a deterministic computation can be


performed on a quantum computer only if it is reversible.
Luckily, it has been shown that any deterministic computation
can be made reversible.(Charles Bennet, ñ 3)„
|   |   

 
 0  ñ   a

      0    ñ   0
  a   0 a  a 0 a

ña



ñ  0 
0   a, ñ   a
0 ñ
|   |  =
  

T 0 ë ñ , T ñ ë 0

T  0   ñ ë   T 0    T ñ


ë ñ   0

0 ñ
The NOT Gate as a Matrix 0
 a
ñ 0

0 ñ    
Quantum NOT 0G 0   ñ   a  a   a
ñ 0  
|   =  
|  

ñ 0  #
Œ
 a
 0 ñ

$

Ρ 0

ñ ñ ñ


=
ñ ña

2 
|     

 0  ñ 0  ñ  0

 0  ñ $ a  G ñ  0

 0  ñ #  0  ñ

 0  ñ
0 ñ 0 ñ
 
2 2
|    ==j

ðA gate which operates on two qubits is called a


› ` ›   If the bit on the control line is
ñ, invert the bit on the target line.

<  =


˜%  ˜ ˜  ˜ 
ї
  
%     
  

& The CN gate has a similar behavior to the XOR gate


=  |    

Ñ ( Ñ —)  —
—

ї ї
—

— Ñ ( Ñ —) 
  

? target
è qubits

If the control qubit is Mhigh,´ è is applied to the


targets. = is the Controlled-0 gate!
|   

˜
2
˜  with prob. 
 ë  0   ñ then: 
˜   with prob.
˜|   
  

x x x x

0 y xÑy x

Can we build a quantum circuit that performs does this with


qubits?

0 0 ñ ñ
0 0 0 ñ
˜|   
  

 0   ñ
 00   ññ
0

It is  " to clone a qubit.


Also note that

  ë G 0   ñ G 0   ñ
2 2
ë  00   0ñ   ñ0   ññ
unwanted terms
 j   

 
y x y Output
ñ
0 0 G00  ññ
2
ñ
0 ñ G0ñ  ñ0
2
ñ
ñ 0 G00 ññ
2
ñ
ñ ñ G0ñ ñ0
2
|     

 Mñ

M2

 
0 #

ñ
0 ë    ë G 0   ñ  G00  ññ
2
|     !




M2


0 # 

ñ
ñ  G 0  G00  ññ   ñ  G00  ññ
2
|     "




M2


0 # 

ñ  00  G 0   ñ  0ñ  G ñ   0  
2 ë  a
2  ñ0  G 0  ñ  ññ  G ñ  0 a
|     #




M2

 
0 # 

00, 0ñ, ñ0 or ññ
|     $

<˜    "  "  " 


"  
"     
 0  ñ <

  ñ  0 0
 0  ñ
  0  ñ #

  ñ  0 $#0
|   

Its allow quantum computers to evaluate a function f(x) for


many different values of x simulataneously

Let G : 0 ,ñ › 0 ,ñ

 : ¬,  › ¬,  Ñ ( ¬ )

0 x x

 G0 ñ
ñ y yÑf(x)„
 0ñ
 0, ñ Ñ (0)
|   !

ñ
G0  ñ x x  0 ñ 
   0 
2  
  2 
ñ y yÑf(x)„  00  ñ0 
  
 2 
 
0, 0 Ñ (0)  ñ, 0 Ñ (ñ)

2
0, (0)  ñ, (ñ)

2

we¶ve computed f(0) and f(ñ) at the same time!


|     =

ðA gate which operates on three qubits is called a


›  ›  ` ›       If
the bits on both of the control lines is ñ,then the target bit is
inverted.
<  =
˜   ˜  
˜%  
 Ñj›
 
 
'        
 
   
%       
    
 
˜


ðThe CCN gate has been shown to be a i reversible


logic gate as it can be used as a NAND gate. 9here control
bit B,C is the input of the nand gate, while targate bit is
standard state ñ .

˜% 

ë Ñj›


%  

%   


<   
=  

V Introduction History

V Data Representation
V Operations on Data
ð ˜ 
ð Physical Realization of Quantum Computing
ð 5 Things Every Quantum computer Needs
ð Limitations
9   %   |  
  

Three main benefits:

ð Increases in computing power

ð Advances in security

ð Teleportation
   |  
  

=  

V Introduction History
V Data Representation
V Operations on Data
V Advantages
ð á ( )  
ð 5 Things Every Quantum computer Needs
ð Limitations
 < |  
 

ð Ion trap

ð Nuclear magnetic Resonance

ð Optical lattice
  

ð Kingdon trap

ð Penning ion trap

ð Paul, or radio frequency, ion trap


 


A Kingdon trap consists of a thin central wire and an outer


cylindrical electrode. A static applied voltage results in a radial
logarithmic potential between the electrodes.
 


Penning trap is used for the storage of charged particles using


a constant static magnetic field and a spatially inhomogeneous
static electric field.
 

A Paul trap uses static direct current (DC) and radio frequency
(RF) oscillating electric fields to trap ions.
 <

ðA linear Paul trap, the Nobel Prize±winning invention of


9olfgang Paul.

ð The linear ion trap uses a set of quadrupole rods to confine


ions radially and a static electrical potential on-end electrodes
to confine the ions axially.

Advantages of the linear ion trap design:-

ð Increased ion storage capacity

ð Simplicity of construction
 <9

ð It is a vacuum chamber that houses four long electrodes


arranged so that they form the long edges of a rectangular
box.

ð On two of the electrodes, diagonally across from each


other, is a voltage that oscillates at a radio frequency. On the
other two is a dc voltage.

ð The combination of the electric fields emanating from the


electrodes tends to force ions toward the centerline
equidistant from all four electrodes.
ð At any one instant, the forces on an ion between them are
like the force of gravity on a ball sitting on a saddle-shaped
surface.

ð RF signal is designed so that the outward force is weaker


than the inward force when the ion is close to the centre, so
on the average the force an ion feels is toward the centreline.

ð Other electrodes, with the dc voltage, keep the ion from


wandering along the centreline by pushing on it from both
sides.
ð The result of the trapping is a string of ions along the
centreline of the trap, and because they all have the same
charge, they repel each other.

ð The ion¶s collective motion is called the vibrational state,


which acts like a data bus. Starting from a standstill using a
sequence of specially tuned lasers, one qubit¶s data can be
mapped onto the shared vibrational state, and then the
vibrational state can alter a second qubit. That mapping
technique is key to carrying out the operations that make up
quantum algorithms.
 
 
 
 

ð Symmetric Traps

ð Asymmetric Traps
 

ð dc and RF electrodes are arranged so the sum of the dc


electric field is 0 at the midpoint between the RF electrodes.

ð Symmetric, three-dimensional (3D) high aspect-ratio


structures
˜ 

ð In which the RF node is not symmetrically located with


respect to the electrodes.

ð The ions float above the surface of the chip, out of the
plane of the semiconductor.

ð 9ineland¶s group at NIST has already built such a trap


using gold electrodes patterned on the surface of a sapphire
substrate

ð Alcatel-Lucent¶s Bell Labs uses aluminum for the


conducting electrodes and silicon oxide as the insulator.
  


ð Ions still and suspended above the chip is complex


compared with what¶s needed in symmetric traps.

ð Getting the lasers on the ions is also a bit more difficult.


They either have to be shot across the surface of the chip
or through holes etched in particular areas of the trap.

ð Bringing a laser beam across the surface can scatter its


light²which makes reading the state of the ions more
difficult.
˜ 


ð It¶s easier to lay out an interconnected array of traps.

ð Their construction requires less three-dimensional


Carving, making the process more like traditional chip
fabrication, which is largely two-dimensional.
=  
V Introduction History
V Data Representation
V Operations on Data
V Advantages
V Physical Realization of Quantum Computing
ð Ý   ô ) 
ð Limitations
$ 
 |    

IBM quantum computing expert David Di Vincenzo came up


with a set of requirements that any system would need if it
were used as a quantum computer.

Over the years physicists have proven the first four are true
for ion traps, and the development of ion-trap microchips
implies that the fifth is true as well. They are:

º To set all the qubits to 0 at the start of a calculation.

º To read the answer when the calculation is done.


ºThe qubits must last long enough to run a program of a
decent size.

º The computer must be able to carry out the two


fundamental operations that are necessary to perform every
quantum computer program.

º The system¶s basic architecture must be able to handle


large numbers of qubits.
ð The first requirements :- is achieved using lasers.

ð The laser has been tuned to deliver photons with exactly


enough energy to knock the ion¶s outermost electron from
the ñ state²where the spin is pointing in the same direction
as the ion¶s nucleus¶s spin²into a particular excited state.

ð The excited state is unstable, and the electron won¶t


remain there for long but will fall back toward either the 0
or the ñ state, with a certain probability associated for each
outcome.
ð If the qubit falls back to ñ, another photon will kick it
right back up into the excited state again. But if it falls
into the 0 state, it stays there, because the laser beam isn¶t
at the right frequency to promote the electron from 0 to
the excited state. So, ions in the path of the laser will
bounce between being excited and the ñ state until, by
chance, they fall into the 0 state, where they get stuck.

ð This first process usually takes less than ñ microsecond.


ð 9hen the electron falls back, it emits a photon. Photons
are collected and counted, and their presence or absence
tells the ion¶s qubit value.

ð This method of measuring is actually one of the ion-trap


technique¶s strong points; it¶s better than percent
accurate²quite good compared with other technologies.

ð The second requirement :- Qubits last quite a long time


in an ion trap, but decoherence errors are bound to
happen, and flipping a qubit can ruin a calculation.
ð Third requirement :- For reading qubit¶s value it should
remain in its excited state for some time and not get effected
by the outer environment such that qubit will not remain in
it¶s original position.

ð The fourth criterion has to do with an ion-trap computer¶s


ability to carry out logic operations. Classical computers as
well as Quantum Computer use arrangements of just two
types of logic gates²NAND and NOR ²to produce all the
others they might need. The only two gates you really need
are single qubit rotations and the two-qubit controlled-NOT
(CNOT ) gate.
ð Qubit rotation, accomplished using a particular
polarization and wavelength of laser, is like a richer version
of a NOT gate in an ordinary logic circuit.

ð By tipping over the ion¶s valence electron¶s spin, the laser


in an ion-trap quantum computer can turn a qubit ñ into a 0
or a 0 into a ñ, but it can also turn either value into a
superposition of ñ and 0.
ðTwo-qubit CNOT gate, a qubit called the target changes
value depending upon the state of another qubit, called the
control. In CNOT, the target will flip from a ñ to a 0 or a 0
to a ñ only if the control qubit is ñ. If the control qubit is 0,
nothing happens to the target qubit.

ðThere are various CNOT gate schemes that act on trapped


ions.
=  

V Introduction History
V Data Representation
V Operations on Data
V Advantages
V Physical Realization of Quantum Computing
V 5 Things Every Quantum Computer Needs
ð 
9  %   |  
  

ð 9hile advancements in security will be welcome within the


IT community, there is a possibility of an uneven distribution
of adoption of the new technology.

ð Replication of Devices.

ð Quantum computing will instigate rapid changes in


computing.
=  
V Introduction History
V Data Representation
V Operations on Data
V Advantages
V Physical Realization of Quantum Computing
V 5 Things Every Quantum Computer Needs
V Limitations
|&j<

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