Class 1-20

Introduction to Transmission Lines & Fields
06/01/2015, Jagadish C. Mudiganti
ECE202 Transmission Lines & Fiel

ds
Lecture - 1

After our previous course in Engineering Electromagnetics, we

are interested in knowing how this electromagnetic energy travels
from point to point
Electromagnetic Energy
Transfer
Guided Waves
Free Space Waves
Transmission Lines
Antennas & Wave

Propagation
We will study the conditions in which a wave can propagate, and

apply it to specific waveguide configurations or Transmission Lines
This will form the foundation to study free space transmission, under
the future course Antennas & Wave Propagation

Guided Transmission
Waveguides
Optical Fibres
High Voltage Transmission

Free Space Transmission
Waves not supported by a

structure

Guided Wave Transmission
I cann
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Metal
Ahaa !!
This is
Awesome
!!!!!
Metal

Free Space Transmission
This is
so
nice !
!
y
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Oh od !
G
Metal
Metal
!
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Antenna

Transmission Lines
What is a Transmission Line ?

A structure or medium that enables transfer of electromagnetic
energy from one point to another. Eg : Coaxial cable, Parallel
wire, Microstrip line, Cylindrical / Rectangular waveguides etc
In other terms it is a passive element that supports electrical
signals in a circuit or system
Why we need to study Transmission Lines specifically ?
We will consider two cases to emphasize the importance
Case 1 : Let us suppose that an electrical chord (transmission line) of
length 10 m connects a 230 V, 60 Hz, power main to a vacuum cleaner.
What is the effect of the length of electrical chord ?
The wave length of the electrical signal is : 5000000 m
The ratio of electrical chord length to wave length : 210-6
The electrical signal does not undergo any change while travelling
along 10 m long electrical chord, hence, transmission line effects can be
ignored

Transmission Lines
Case 2 : A device is transmitting a signal at a frequency of 4 GHz.

Let us suppose that a receiver is connected to the receiving antenna
via a microstrip transmission line of length 2.5 cm. Does microstrip
line has any effect on the signal received by the receiver ?
The wave length of the signal is : 7.5 cm
The ratio of microstrip length to wave length of signal : 0.33
The electrical signal does undergo significant change while travelling
along microstrip line, hence, transmission line effects cannot be ignored
What is a general rule to consider transmission line effects ?
There is no strict thumb rule, but, if the length of the transmission
line is > 10 % of the wavelength of the signal transmitted, then
transmission line effects are significant.
What are these effects we are talking about ?
Transit time / Phase of the signal at the beginning and end of the
transmission line. Impedance of the line, which causes losses in the
signal strength.
Transmission Lines
Consider the given circuit
B
Load
V(t)
A
Transmission Line
V(t)
The time taken by the signal in travelling from source (A-A) to

observer (B-B) is called transit-time (tr) and is responsible for phase
delay between two points on transmission line

What Shall We Study In This Course ?
Transmission Lines and their analysis based on lumped

element circuit parameters
Planar Transmission Lines and their analysis
Impedance Matching and various techniques
Measurement of Transmission Line parameters using
Smith Chart
Electromagnetic Interference, causes and remedial
measures
Waveguides, field distributions inside a waveguide and
general solutions for various modes

How Do We Go About ?
10
We have effectively 40 x 50 min. = 33.3 hours of lecture

time to complete this course
And 3 x 50 min. = 2.5 hours per week
We have 17 lecture classes before CAT I and 13 lecture
classes thereafter till CAT - II and the remainder 10 lecture
classes up to Term End Examination (TEE)
In between CAT I, CAT II and TEE, we will have 3 Quiz
papers and Assignments
The syllabus is divided into 5 Units, We expect to finish
We may go in this order of completing the units - Unit I,
Unit III, Unit V, Unit II, Unit IV
The course chair will decide the syllabus for CAT I, CAT
II, which will intimated to you as the course progresses
We will follow Networks, Lines and Fields by John D Ryder,
and Microwave Engineering by David M. Pozar
Transmission Lines Primary Constants


ds
Lecture - 2

Primary Constants
If we ignore the thermal effects, any conducting medium can be

classified by a set of primary constants
Resistance
Assuming the conductor having
uniform cross-section A and
length l, we can write the current
density as
I
J
A
But we also know that J = E
E
I
l
+ V
E dL
V
l
l
Hence Resistance is defined by R

I E dS A A
Where is the resistivity of the material and its conductivity

Primary Constants
The ac resistance of a given wire of similar material and cross-section

is more than its dc resistance. This is due to skin effect which confines
the current to the surface of the conductor
Conductance
A
Similarly Conductance can be defined as G
l
Where its conductivity

Primary Constants
Capacitance
The Capacitance between two arbitrary conductors can be
calculated as
Q E dS A
C
V
E dL d
Where is dielectric constant of material and d is the distance
between the conductors
Capacitance does not depend on
the length of the transmission
line, but on cross-section and
distance between the conductors
Outer Conductor
d
Inner Conductor
Dielectric

Primary Constants
Inductance
Likewise Inductance can be defined as
N m N H dS NA
L
I
I
l
H dL
Where N is the number of turns of
the transmission line and is
permeability of the medium
If the number of turns is one
then A becomes the crosssection of the conductor itself
and Inductance then mainly
depends on the length l of the
line

Impedance
What is Impedance?
Impedance (Z) is the measure of the opposition that a circuit
(transmission line) presents to an alternating current when an
alternating voltage is applied.
There are two additional impeding mechanisms to be taken into
account besides the normal resistance of DC circuits: the
induction of voltages in conductors self-induced by the magnetic
fields of currents, and the electrostatic storage of charge induced
by voltages between conductors (capacitance)
Hence Impedance is sum of Resistance &
Reactance of the transmission line
Im
~
What is Reactance ?
Z
X
The resistance offered to ac signal by
~
|
Z
|
inductance and capacitance of a
transmission line is reactance (X)
X L L
XC 1
C
Re
Resistance / Impedance
Impedance can now be written as Z R jX
~ ~
~ j
In Polar form it can be written as Z Z Z e
~
2
2
1 X
Where Z R X , tan
R
If you want to convert back to rectangular coordinates ?
~
~
R Z cos , X Z sin
If the phase is function of time then t
~ ~
~ jt j ~ jt
Then Z Z Z e e Z s e
Phasor term
Complex Notation
These basic operations with complex numbers are useful
Addition of two complex numbers
Z1 Z 2 R1 R2 j X 1 X 2
Subtraction of two complex numbers
Z1 Z 2 R1 R2 j X 1 X 2
Multiplication of two complex numbers
Z1Z 2 R1 R2 1 2
Division of two complex numbers
Z1 R1
1 2
Z 2 R2
Transmission Line Equations


ds
Lecture - 3

Equivalent Circuit Representation

Once we calculated primary constants, we can build an equivalent
circuit of the transmission line shown below
V(t)
Load
Transmission Line
z
R
L
G
L
G
L
G
z
1
It should be noted that transmission line is a distributed form of the

lumped network elements represented by R L C G
Equivalent Circuit Representation
+
v(z,t)
z
i(z,t)
+
i(z+z,t)
R z
G z
v(z,t)
Relate
these
primary
l
constants with the given R
A
circuit
L z
C z

i(z,t)
v(z+z,t)
A
G
l
A
d
NA
l

Why z Section of Transmission Line ?
Why are we dividing the transmission line into small sections of

length z ?
We have seen in previous classes that we study transmission line
theory because of transit-time effects at high frequencies. To
apply the lumped element circuit model (which is used at low
frequencies), we have to divide transmission line to a length
where these effects can be ignored
Once lumped element approximation is valid, we can apply
Kirchoffs Laws to study the circuit
The equivalent model is accurate only when z <<
The distributed parameters can be defined per unit length of the line
R = Resistance of both conductors together for unit length of the line
(ohms/m), L = Inductance (self and mutual) for both conductors together
for unit length of the line (Henry/m), C = Capacitance between two
conductors for unit length of the line (Farad/m), G = Leakage
conductance between two conductors for unit length of the line (Mho/m)

Why We Use V & I Parameters?

If we were to solve the transmission line problem using electric (E)
and magnetic fields (H)
We would require to solve Maxwells equations along with the
boundary conditions, which is non-trivial
Therefore, we use circuit parameters such as voltage (V) and current
(I) which can be easily analysed. Also, most of the measuring
equipment are designed to read voltages and currents. Hence, the
lumped element analysis can be readily tested experimentally.
Similarly the physical properties of the material are related to the
lumped element parameters as
LC
4
i(z,t)
+
i(z+z,t)
R z
G z
v(z,t)
After KVL
L z
C z

Now let us apply Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL) to the circuit below
v(z+z,t)
i ( z , t )
v( z , t ) Rzi ( z , t ) Lz
v( z z , t ) 0
t
Similarly we apply Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL) to the circuit

below
v( z z , t )
i ( z , t ) Gzv( z z , t ) Cz
i ( z z , t ) 0
t

Re-arranging the previous equations we have
Ri ( z , t ) L
i ( z , t )
v( z z , t ) v( z , t )
t
z
The equivalent circuit approximation will be close to actual

transmission line, if z 0. Applying this limit to previous equation
v( z , t )
i ( z , t )
Ri ( z , t ) L
z
t
(1)
Similarly re-arranging the KCL equation and applying the limit z 0
i ( z , t )
v( z , t )
Gv( z , t ) C
z
t
(2)
Equations (1) & (2) are Coupled Transmission Line or Telegraphers

Equations
Telegraphers Equations Phasor Form

The time-harmonic form of voltage and current can be written as
i ( z , t ) Rei ( z )e
v( z , t ) Re vs ( z )e jt
j t
Where vs ( z ), is ( z ) are the phasors of the functions v(z,t) & i(z,t)

Re-writing the Telegraphers equations in Phasor form ( t j )
dv( z )
R j L i ( z )
dz
di ( z )
G jC v( z )
dz
Substituting one equation in the other, the above two equations will
finally give rise to Phasor Form of Transmission Line Equations
d 2 v( z )
2
v( z )
2
dz
d 2i ( z )
2
i( z )
2
dz
Transmission Lines Secondary Constants


ds
Lecture - 4

Solutions to Transmission Line Eq.s
If we look at the transmission line equations derived in previous

class,
d 2 v( z )
2
v( z )
2
dz
d 2i ( z )
2
i( z )
2
dz
We can see that it is same as plane wave equation, except that,

instead of field variables, we have circuit variables
d 2 E( z)
2
E ( z ),
2
dz
d 2 H ( z)
2
H ( z)
2
dz
1D Plane wave equations
The above transmission line equations have solutions of the form
v( z ) V1e z V2 ez
i ( z ) I1e z I 2 ez
Incident Wave +z
-z Reflected Wave

Secondary Constants
Propagation Constant
Propagation constant is a secondary constant, that can be derived
from the primary constants as
R jL G jC
j
Real term, Attenuation Const.
L G C
2
2 2
RG LC
Imaginary term, Phase Const.

2
L G C
2
2 2
RG LC
Attenuation const. is measured in Neper/m, 1 Neper = 8.686 dB

Secondary Constants
Phase Constant
Phase constant can also be written in terms of wavelength
2
Phase Velocity
Phase velocity is defined in terms of Phase constant as,
vp
Wavelength
Wavelength can be found from frequency, as well as phase constant
vp

Secondary Constants
Characteristic Impedance
Consider the T-network as shown below
R jL z
R jL z
1
G jC z
Now the total impedance of this T-network is
Z0
R jL 2 z 2 R jL z
G jC z
4
As z 0, z2 0, therefore,
Z0
R j L
G jC

Secondary Constants
From the previous definitions, we can write the characteristic

impedance and propagation constant as
Z
Z0
Y
ZY
Where Z R jL is the series impedance, and Y G jC is

the shunt admittance of the transmission line
If the peak incident voltage (V1) and current (I1) amplitudes are
given or consequently peak reflected voltage (V2) and current (I2),
then the characteristic impedance can be written as
V1
V
Z0 2
I1
I2

Let Us Solve These
Problems
1. A generator of 1 V, 1 kHz supplies power to a 100 km long line
terminated in Z0 and having the following constants
R = 10.4 /km, L = 0.00367 H/km, G = 0.810-6 mho/km
C = 0.0083510-6 F/km
Calculate Z0, attenuation constant , phase constant ,
wavelength and velocity v, received current, voltage and
power.
2. The characteristic impedance of a uniform transmission line is
2039.5 at a frequency of 800 Hz. At this frequency the
propagation constant was found to be 0.054 87.90. Determine
the values of line constants R, L, G and C.
Transmission Lines Special Cases


ds
Lecture - 5
Transmission Line Lossless

If we consider a transmission line with no losses, the condition is
RG0
The propagation constant can now be written as
j LC
Which means that the attenuation constant 0
And phase constant LC
The characteristic impedance becomes Z 0
2
The wavelength is
LC
1
L
C
and phase velocity v p
1
LC
Transmission Line Low Loss

If we consider a transmission line with low-loss, the condition is
R L, G C
Which means that both conductor and dielectric losses are low
In such a case the propagation constant can be written as
G
R
L C
j LC 1 j
By taking Taylors expansion of the highlighted term, up to first

order, we can write propagation constant for low-loss case as
j R
G
j LC 1

2 L C
Where
1 x
1 x 1 x .......
2

Transmission Line Low Loss
1
C
L
G
Where the attenuation constant is R
2
L
C
1 R
GZ 0
Or alternately attenuation constant is
2 Z0
And phase constant LC
L
The characteristic impedance becomes Z 0
C

Transmission Line Distortionless

If we consider a transmission line which is lossy, its phase
constant is not a linear function of frequency
LC
Which means that different frequencies have different phase
velocities for a wideband signal
These different frequencies of same wideband signal will arrive
at receiver end at different times resulting in dispersion or
distortion of the original signal, which is undesirable effect.
Hence a distortionless line is a special case of lossy transmission
line, where the phase constant is a linear function of frequency
R G
The condition for distortionless line is

L C
4
Transmission Line Distortionless

The propagation constant can now be written as
R
R2
j LC 1 2 j
2 2
L L
R
j LC 1 j
C
R
j LC
L
Where the attenuation constant R
C
is same for all frequencies
L
And phase constant LC is a linear function of frequency

5


ds
Lecture - 6
Let Us Solve These

Problems
3. A 10 % voltage drop occurs in 2 km of a uniformly loaded

transmission line terminated by its characteristic impedance and
there is a phase change of 200 over the same distance at a
frequency of 796 Hz. Find the value of (i) the line attenuation in
dB/km and (ii) the velocity of propagation
4. A telephone line has resistance of 20 , inductance of 10 mH,
capacitance of 0.1 F, and insulation resistance of 0.1 M/km.
Find the input impedance at angular frequency of 5000 rad/s, if
the line is very long.
5. A distortionless transmission line has a characteristic impedance
of 50 , = 0.02 Np/m, vp = 0.6c. Determine R, L, G, C and
wavelength at 0.1 GHz
Let Us Solve These

Problems
6. A lossless transmission line of length 100 m has an inductance

of 28H and a capacitance of 20 nF. Find (i) propagation
velocity (ii) phase constant at an operating frequency of 100
kHz (iii) characteristic impedance of the line
7. A lossless transmission line used in a TV receiver has a
capacitance of 50 pF/m and an inductance of 200 nH/m. Find
the characteristic impedance for sections of a line 10 m long and
500 m long
Terminated Transmission Lines I


ds
Lecture - 7
Forward & Backward Waves

Consider a transmission line of finite length

Plane of Reflection
Vs
V +I +
V +I +
Transmitted Wave
V-I l
Z=0
v( z ) V e z V ez
i ( z ) I e z I ez
Forward Wave +z
-z Backward Wave

Sources Of Reflection
Plane of Reflection
Mismatched Load Z0 ZL
R
L
G
L
G
L
G
C ZL
Open Circuit Z0 ZL (ZL )

Vs
Short Circuit Z0 ZL (ZL 0)

Vs
l
Z=-l
Z=0
Lossless Line Mismatched Load

Consider a lossless line terminated by an arbitrary load
v(z), i(z)
-l
ZL
Z=0
The voltage and current equations can be written in terms of

characteristic impedance as
= j, since = 0
v ( z ) V e j z V e j z
V j z V j z
i( z )
e
e
Z0
Z0
Here we assume Z0 = ZL

Since the load impedance is arbitrary, there is a mismatch

between Z0 and ZL
The load impedance can be written as the ratio of voltage to current
at the reference plane (Z=0)
v( z 0) V V
ZL

Z0
i ( z 0) V V
V V
Where we substituted i ( z 0)
Z0
From which we have the amplitude of the reflected wave as
Z Z0
V L
V
Z L Z0


Now the amplitude of reflection coefficient can be defined as the
ratio of magnitude of reflected voltage to that of the incident
voltage
V Z L Z0

V
Z L Z0
We can now re-write the voltage and current equations as
V
i( z )
Z0
Zero Reflection 0
Total Reflection 1
v( z ) V e jz e jz
j z
e j z
Terminated Transmission Lines II


ds
Lecture - 8

Complex Reflection Coefficient

The magnitude of reflection coefficient in terms of characteristic
and load impedances, can be written as
V Z L Z0

V
Z L Z0
The voltage/current is varying along the length of the line, and is
decided by not only the magnitude of forward and backward
waves, but also their phase
v( z l ) V 1 e 2 jl
If forward and backward voltage waves have a phase term then their
ratio reflection coefficient will also have a phasor form
v( z l ) V 1 e j 2 l
Where the complex reflection coefficient can be written as
e j
1

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
From the previous equations, voltage is maximum when the

phase term is
e j 2 l 1
2 l 2 or l
Similarly the voltage has a minimum when the phase term is
e j 2 l 1 2 l
or
The maximum and minimum of voltage can be written as
Vmax V 1
Vmin V 1
The Voltage Standing Wave Ratio can be defined as ratio of voltage

maximum to minimum
Vmax 1
s
Vmin 1
1 s

Input Impedance
As we have seen that the voltage and current are varying along
the length of the transmission line, the impedance looking into
the line also varies along the length of the line
Zin(z)
v(z), i(z)
ZL
-l
Z=0
The impedance at any point on the line can be written as
j l
j l
v z l V e e
Z in
j l
Z0
j l
i z l V e e
V j l V j l
e
e
Where i ( z l )
Z0
Z0

Input Impedance
Substituting in terms of the characteristic & load impedances
Z in
Expanding the exponentials in terms of sine & cosine functions
Z L cos l jZ 0 sin l
Z in Z 0
Z 0 cos l jZ L sin l
Or alernately, input impedance for a lossless line can be written
as
Z L jZ 0 tan l
Z in Z 0
Z 0 jZ L tan l
And for a lossy line

4
j l
j l
Z
e
Z
e
L
0
L
0
Z0
j l
j l
Z L Z0 e
L Z0 e
Z L Z 0 tanh l
Z in Z 0
Z 0 Z L tanh l

Transmission Coefficient
If two transmission lines of characteristic impedances Z0 and Z1

are attached, then the reflection and transmission are
Plane of Reflection
Vs
Z0
Z1
V +I +
V +I +
Transmitted Wave
l
Z=0
Reflection coefficient is
Z1 Z 0
Z1 Z 0
Transmission coefficient is
2 Z1
T 1
Z1 Z 0
Let Us Solve These

Problems
8. A transmission line 100 m long operating at 100 MHz has the

following
Z0 = 50-50
= 0.001 Np/m
= /1.8 rad/m
The transmission line is now connected to a load and the value
of voltage reflection coefficient measured at a distance of 4 m
away from the load is found to be 0.5300. Calculate input
impedance.
9. The characteristic impedance of a certain line is 710140 and
= 0.007+j0.028 /km. The line is terminated in a 300
resistor.
Calculate the input impedance of the line if its
length is 100 km.
Terminated Transmission Lines III


ds
Lecture - 9

Lossless Line Short Circuit

Let us consider the second source of reflection, that is, a short
circuited transmission line
IL
-l
The reflection coefficient in this case is given as
Z L Z0
1
Z L Z0
From which the standing wave ratio can be calculated as
s
1
VL = 0 ZL = 0
v(z), i(z)
1
1


The voltage and current can be written as
v ( z ) V e j z e j z
V
i( z )
Z0
j z
e j z
where V V
We can use the trigonometric identities
1 jx
1 jx
jx
sinh jx e e
j sin x cosh jx e e jx cos x
2
2
The voltage and current can be simplified using above identities
v( z ) 2 jV sin z
2
cos z
2
V
i( z)
Z 0

Dividing the voltage by current obtained in previous equations
v( z )
2 jV sin z
Z in
i ( z ) 2V cos z
Z 0
The input impedance of a short-circuited lossless transmission

line can be written at any point z = - l on the line as
Z sc jZ 0 tan l
It can be noted that the input impedance of a short circuited
transmission line is purely imaginary and varies periodically
between -j to +j
A special case exists when l = /4, Zsc = corresponding to an
open circuit.

Normalized Voltage and Current on a short-circuited transmission

line
Plane of Reflection/ Load

Lossless Line Open Circuit

Let us consider the third source of reflection, that is, an open
circuited transmission line
IL = 0
ZL =
-l
The reflection coefficient in this case is given as
Z0
Z0
From which the standing wave ratio can be calculated as
1
1
ZL
ZL

The voltage and current can be written as
V
i( z)
Z0
j z
e j z
We again use the trigonometric identities to simplify above equations
1 jx
1 jx
jx
sinh jx e e
j sin x cosh jx e e jx cos x
2
2
The voltage and current can be simplified using above identities
v( z ) 2V cos z
2 jV
i( z )
sin z
Z
0

Dividing the voltage by current obtained in previous equations
2V cos z
2
jV
sin z

Z 0
v( z )
Z in
i( z )
The input impedance of an open-circuited lossless transmission

line can be written at any point z = - l on the line as
Z oc jZ 0 cot l
It can be noted that the input impedance of an open circuited
transmission line is purely imaginary and varies periodically
between -j to +j
A special case exists when l = /2, Zoc = corresponding to an
open circuit.

Normalized Voltage and Current on an open-circuited transmission

line
Plane of Reflection/ Load
Terminated Transmission Lines IV


ds
Lecture - 10

Calculation of Characteristic Impedance

In many instances, the primary constants of a transmission line R,
L, C, G may not be known and other methods have to be explored
to calculate characteristic impedance
The input impedance of a short-circuited lossless transmission line
can be written at any point z = - l on the line as
Z sc jZ 0 tan l
The input impedance of an open-circuited lossless transmission line
can be written at any point z = - l on the line as
Z oc jZ 0 cot l
From which, we can calculate the characteristic impedance as
Z 0 Z sc Z oc
1

Average Power Lossless Line

From the voltage and current equations, we can define average
power flowing on a transmission line
V
i( z)
Z0
j z
e j z
The average power is
Pavg
i( z )
1
1V
2
*
* 2 j z
2 j z
Re v( z )i ( z )
Re 1 e
e
2
2 Z0
Ignoring the imaginary terms, we have

2
Pavg
2
V j z
e * e j z
Z0
1V
2
1
2 Z0
Term contributing
to reactive power

Average Power Lossy Line

For a lossy transmission line, the voltage and current equations
are
v( z ) V e z ez
V
i( z )
Z0
ez
i( z )
V z
e *e z
Z0
The reflection coefficient at a distance l from the load is given as
V e l
l l e 2l
V e
V
where
V
We can now write input power as
1
V
V
2 2l
2 2l
*
2l
Pin Re V (l ) I (l )
e e
1 l e
2
2Z 0
2Z 0
3

Average Power Lossy Line
Now power delivered to the load can be written as
1
V
2
*
PL Re V (0) I (0)
1
2
2Z 0
Hence, the power lost on the line Ploss = Pin - PL

2
Ploss
V
2
2l
e 1 1 e 2l
2Z 0
Loss factor of Incident Wave
Loss factor of reflected Wave

Reflection & Insertion Loss
The ratio of reflected power to incident power is commonly

referred as return loss
RL 20 log dB
The ratio of transmitted power to incident power is commonly
referred as insertion loss
IL 20 log T dB
It can be noted that the reflection and transmission coefficients are in
voltage ratios and power will be square of that, therefore, the ratio of
powers can directly be defined as, where P2 is receiving end and P1 is
sending end power
P2
Positive Value is Gain
10 log dB
Negative Value is Loss
P1
When received power is only half of sent power, then in decibel scale
we call it -3dB, and if it is 1/10th , the power ratio is -10dB

Power Measurements
dB or dBW
P
10 log10
or
1W
V
20 log10
1V
Peak Power or Pulse Power P0 or Ppeak is the rate of energy flow in each
pulse
E
Ppeak
T
Average Power Pavg is the rate of energy flow average over one full
period
E
Pavg
T
Duty Cycle is defined as ratio of pulse Duty t Pavg
width to pulse repetition
T
Ppeak
Terminated Transmission Lines V


ds
Lecture - 11
Let Us Solve These

Problems
10. A radio transmitter is connected to an antenna of impedance
80+j40 with a 50 coaxial cable. If the 50 transmitter can
deliver 30 W when connected to a 50 load, how much power
is delivered to the antenna.
11. A lossless transmission line of characteristic impedance 75
and an electrical length l=0.3 is terminated with a load
impedance of 30 - j20 . Find the reflection coefficient at the
load, the SWR on the line, the reflection coefficient at the input
of the line and the input impedance of the line.
12. A lossless transmission line is terminated with a 100 load. If
the SWR on the line is 1.5, find the two possible values for the
characteristic impedance of the line
1
Let Us Solve These

Problems
13. A generator is connected to a transmission line as shown below.

Find the voltage as a function of z along the transmission line.
Plot the magnitude of this voltage for l z 0.
14. A 50 transmission line is matched to a 10 V source and feeds

a load ZL = 100 . If the line is 2.3 long and has an
attenuation constant of 0.5 dB/, find the powers that are
delivered by the source, lost in the line and delivered to the
load.
Terminated Transmission Lines VI


ds
Lecture - 12
Reflected Wave Incident Wave

Maxima & Minima Short Circuit
V+,V - Out of phase
Out of phase points
I+,I in phase
Imax
Vmax
Imin
Vmin
Z = -l
/2
/4
Z=0
Reflected Wave Incident Wave

Maxima & Minima Open Circuit
V+,Vin
phase
Out of phase points

I+,IOut of
phase
Vmax
Imax
Vmin
Imin
Z = -l
/2
/4
Z=0

Maxima & Minima Arbitrary Real Load

If ZL = RL > Z0
Z0
Vmax
If ZL = RL < Z0
Z0
Vmin
Z = -l
Z=0

Maxima & Minima Arbitrary Load

Vmax
If Im{ZL} > 0 (Inductive +jL) (Vmax nearest to load)

Z0
ZL
If Im{ZL} < 0 (Capacitive -jC) (Vmin nearest to load)
Z0
ZL
Vmin
Z = -l
4
Z=0


Z L Z0
If Im{ZL} > 0 Im L Im
0
Z L Z0
The location of the voltage maxima are given as
2 d max 2n d max
2 n
Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ..
n=2
n=1
n=0
ZL
/2


Z L Z0
If Im{ZL} < 0 Im L Im
0
Z L Z0
The location of the voltage maxima are given as
2 d min (2n 1) d min

Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ..
ZL
n=1
n=2
/2
6
(2n 1)
n=0
Generator & Load Mismatch


ds
Lecture - 13

Generator & Load Reflections
Let us consider a transmission line with no losses, but

mismatched generator and load impedances
i(z)
Zg
Vg
v(z)
Z0
ZL
Zin
-l
Z=0
If generator impedance is not matched to the characteristic impedance

of transmission line i,e, Zg Z0 , we will have reflection of the signal,
given by g
Similarly if i,e, ZL Z0 , we will have reflection L at the load end

Let us consider the input end of the line

i(z)
Zg
Vg
v(z)
Zin
-l
Zin v(z)
2
The voltage at the beginning of the line is
Z in
v( z l ) Vg
Z in Z g
Zg
Vg
Z0
But we can also write voltage as
v( z l ) V0 e jl L e jl
(1)
(2)


Comparing (1) & (2), we get
Z in
1
Vg
Z in Z g e jl L e jl
V0
Substituting input impedance in the above equation
Z in Z 0
1 e
1 e
L
V0
3
Z in
Vg
V0 e jl L e jl
Z in Z g
2 j l
2 j l
Z 0 1 L e 2 jl
e j l
Vg
Z 0 1 L e 2 jl Z g 1 L e 2 jl 1 L e 2 jl

Re-writing the previous equation
V0
Z 0 e j l
Vg
Z 0 Z g Z 0 Z g L e 2 jl
Now we can define reflection coefficient at generator end as
Z g Z0
Taking into account, the reflection at the generator, we have
V0 Vg
Z 0 e j l
(Z g Z 0 )
Z0 Z g 1
L e
(Z 0 Z g )
V0
Z g Z0
2 j l
Z 0 e j l
Vg
( Z 0 Z g )(1 g L e 2 jl )

Why we require to find V0+ ?
We require voltage v(z) to calculate power at any point on the

transmission line
Pavg
1
Rev( z )i ( z )*
2
To know the voltage v(z) on the transmission line, we need the

amplitude of the voltage V0+ at that point
v( z ) V0 e jz L e jz
Previously we ignored the generator impedance in transmission

line calculations, hence, we require a corrected voltage V0+ value
that considers impedance mismatch and consequent reflection at
the generator end
Effective Power Under Mismatch

The average power delivered to the load can be written as
Pavg
1
1
1
2
*
Re v( z )i ( z ) v( z ) Re
2
2
Z in
1
Vg
2
Z in
Z in Z g
1
Re
Z
in
If we consider Zin = Rin + j Xin & Zg = Rg + j Xg
Pavg
1
Vg
2
Rin X in
1
( Rin Rg ) 2 ( X in X g ) 2 Rin
Generator & Load Mismatch I


ds
Lecture - 14
Matched Load
The condition for a matched load is ZL = Z0 L = 0

Under these conditions the input impedance becomes Zin = Z0 , where
Z0 is assumed to be real
i(z)
Zg
Vg
ZL
v(z)
Zin
-l
Z=0
Now we can write the power delivered to the load as
1
P Vg
2
1
Z0
Z0
( Z 0 Rg ) 2 ( X g ) 2
Matched Generator
The condition for a matched generator is Zin = Zg g = 0

However the load may not be matched to the transmission line i.e,
ZL Z0
i(z)
Zg
v(z)
Vg
Zin
-l
Z=0
Now we can write the power delivered to the load as
1
P Vg
2
2
Z0
Rg
2
4( Rg X g )
ZL

Conjugate Matching
The method of conjugate matching starts with fixing the

generator impedance, which in almost all practical problems is
unalterable
The input impedance is then varied in such a way that it matches
the generator impedance
Z L jZ 0 tan l
Z in Z 0
Rin jX in
Z 0 jZ L tan l
After the input impedance is matched to the generator, we can use
a suitable impedance transformer to match the load
(1) Transform the impedance at the input terminals of the line
into a real value. (2) Do the same for the load end. (3) Scale up or
down the real impedance to the level of Z0
Conjugate Matching
Recall the equation of power delivered to the load
1
P Vg
2
Rin X in
1
( Rin Rg ) 2 ( X in X g ) 2 Rin
To find the maximum power that can be delivered, we should

differentiate the above equation with the real and reactive
components of the input impedance separately.
P
2
2
0 Rg Rin ( X in X g ) 2 0
Rin
(1)
Similarly, differentiating w.r.t. Xin and equating to zero
P
0 X in ( X in X g ) 0
X in
(2)
Conjugate Matching
Solving (1) & (2), we can write
Rin Rg
X in X g
Alternately we can write the above as
Z in Z g
The above conditions are referred as conjugate matching and it will

result in maximum transfer of power to the load for a fixed Zg
1
P Vg
2
1
4 Rg
Let Us Solve These

Problems
15. The short circuit and open circuit impedances at 800 Hz of a

transmission line 40 km long are 3200-800 and 1300800
respectively. Calculate the line constants R, L, G and C.
Transmission Line Resonators - I

Transmission Line Resonators I

ds
Lecture - 15

Series Resonator
A series RLC circuit, as shown below, acts as a resonator when

the average magnetic energy stored in the inductor equals the
electrical energy in the capacitor
R
Vg
L
I
Zin
1
The input impedance can be written as Z in R jL j
C
1
1

At resonance X L X C L
C
LC
Input impedance at resonance is Z in R

Series Resonator
Now, the input impedance near resonance = 0 + can be

written as
2
2
0
1
Z in R jL 1 2
R jL
2
LC

Series Resonator
We can write (as << 1)
2 0 2 0 0 (2 ) 2
The input impedance then becomes
Z in R j 2 L
If we define quality factor as the ability of the circuit to store

energy,
W W
Q0 0
Ploss
1
2
We C V
4
2Wm 0 L
1
At resonance Wm = We Q0 0
Ploss
R
0 RC
Where, Wm
1
LI
4
2 RQ0
Input Impedance becomes Z in R j
0

Series Resonator
At resonance impedance is purely resistive and at a minimum value

Parallel Resonator
A parallel RLC circuit, as shown below, acts as a resonator when

the average magnetic energy stored in the inductor equals the
electrical energy in the capacitor
I
Vg
Zin
1
1
The input impedance is Z in
jC
R j L
1
1

At resonance X L X C L
C
LC
Input impedance at resonance is Z in R

Parallel Resonator
If we define quality factor as the ability of the circuit to store
energy,
Wm We
Q0 0
1 2 1
Where, Wm V
4
2L
1
We C V
4
Ploss
1V
2 R
2Wm
R
0 RC
At resonance Wm = We Q0 0
Ploss 0 L
Input Impedance becomes
When R
Ploss
R
Z in
1 2 jRC
1
Z in
2 jC 0

Parallel Resonator
At resonance impedance is purely resistive and at a maximum value
Transmission Line Resonators - II


ds
Lecture - 16

Short Circuited Half Wave Resonator
Let us consider a short circuited transmission line of length l =

/2,
Zin
Z0, ,
-l
ZL = 0
The input impedance of a lossy short circuited line can be written

as
Z in Z 0 tanh l Z 0 tanh j l (1)
tanh x tanh y
Let us use the trigonometric identity tanh( x y )
1 tanh x tanh y
Where x l , y j l and tanh(iy ) j tan y

Now, the equation (1) for input impedance can be re-written as
tanh l j tan l
(2)
Z in Z 0
1 j tan l tanh l
It can be seen that for = 0, we have the input impedance for a shortcircuited lossless line Zsc = j Z0 tanl
For all practical applications, we require a lossless or a low-loss line,
hence we assume l << 1, then tanh l l
If we let = 0 + , where << 1, then for a TEM line, we have
l 0l l
l
vp
vp
vp
0l
At resonance = 0 & l = /2, we get l
vp

Therefore at = 0 + ,
0l l 0l

1

vp
vp
vp
0
0
Then we can write
tan l tan
tan

0
0
0
0
0
0
Substituting the above relations into equation (2), we get
l j
Z in Z 0
Z 0 l
l
1 j
<< 1


Compare the previous equation with the input impedance of a
series RLC resonator
Z in R 2 jL
We can write resistance of the equivalent circuit as R Z 0l
Z 0
Inductance of the equivalent circuit as L
20
From the equation 0
equivalent circuit as
1
we can write the capacitance of the
LC
C
4
0 L
2

Thus, the half wave short-circuited line resonates when = 0 at l

= /2. And its input impedance is Zin = R = Z0l
Resonances occur at l = n/2, for n = 1, 2, 3,..
n=1
n=2
-l
0 L
The unloaded Q of the resonator is Q0
, substituting the
R
previous L & R values, we get
Q0
2

Short Circuited Quarter Wave Resonator
Let us consider a short circuited transmission line of length l =

/4,
The input impedance of a lossy short circuited line can be written
as
Z in Z 0 tanh l Z 0 tanh j l
Again proceeding as in the previous case, we can re-write the above
tanh l j tan l
Z in Z 0
1 j tan l tanh l
Multiplying the numerator and denominator with j cot l
1 j tanh l cot l
Z in Z 0
tanh l j cot l
(3)
We again make the same assumptions that at resonance l = /4 and

= 0 +

Therefore at = 0 + ,
0l l 0l

l
1

vp
vp
vp
0
2
20
Then we can write

cot l cot
20
2
tan
20
20
0
0
20
Again for a lossless or a low-loss line, we assume l << 1, then we

have tanh l l
Substituting the above relations into equation (3) we can write the
input impedance

<< 1
1 jl
20
Z0
Z in Z 0
l j 2
l j 2
0
0
Compare the above equation with the input impedance of a parallel

RLC resonator
R
Z in
1 2 jRC
Z0
We can write resistance of the equivalent circuit as R
l
Capacitance of the equivalent circuit as C

40 Z 0

Then inductance can be found out as L
0 2C
The unloaded Q of the resonator is Q0 0 RC, substituting the

previous C & R values, we get
Q0
2
Therefore a short circuited transmission line acts as a parallel
resonant circuit at a lengths of l = (2n-1) /4, where n = 1, 2, 3...

Open Circuited Half Wave Resonator
10
Let us consider an open circuited transmission line of length l =

/2,
Zin
Z0, ,
-l
The input impedance of a lossy open circuited line can be written

as
Z in Z 0 coth l Z 0 coth j l
Using trigonometric identities we can re-write the above equation
1 j tan l tanh l
(4)
Z in Z 0
tanh l j tan l

Assume l = /2 at = 0 , we can write at = 0 + ,
11
0l l 0l

1

vp
vp
vp
0
0
Then we can write
tan l tan
tan

0
0
0
tanh l l
Substituting the above relations into equation (4), we get
Z in
Z0
l j
0

12
Compare the above equation with the input impedance of a parallel

RLC resonator
R
Z in
1 2 jRC
Z0
We can write resistance of the equivalent circuit as R
l
Capacitance of the equivalent circuit as C

20 Z 0
Then inductance can be found out as L
0 C
2

13
The unloaded Q of the resonator is Q0 0 RC, substituting the

previous C & R values, we get
Q0
2
V
n=1
-l
n=2
0

Summary Of Transmission Line Resonators
14
-l
0
-l
0
Z

Summary Of Transmission Line Resonators
15
-l
-l
0
Z
Smith Chart - Introduction


ds
Lecture - 17

Complex Impedance or Z - Plane
Impedance Plane or Z- Plane is where you can uniquely define

impedances by its two constituents Resistance & Reactance
Z R jX
Since, we tune all networks to match characteristic impedance, it is
convenient to normalize impedances with characteristic impedance
Z
Z
R jX
Z0
Normalized
Impedance
Normalized
Resistance
Normalized
Reactance
jX
Passive load
Inductive
load
jX
R
Capacitive
load

Complex Reflection or - Plane
The complex reflection or - Plane is a coordinate plane where

you can uniquely represent any reflection arising out of mismatched passive impedances
Phase of Reflection
j
Complex Reflection Coeff.

Magnitude of Reflection
jv
For all passive loads 0 | | 1
| | = 1 circle
Normalized Reflection Coeff.
Z Z0 Z 1
Z Z0 Z 1
R jX 1
u jv
R jX 1
||

Smith Chart
Smith Chart gives the graphical approach of analyzing
transmission line parameters
This approach does not give voltage and current solutions, it gives
impedance characteristics, VSWR, reflection coefficient, location of
voltage minima and maxima etc
It transforms complex impedance (Z- Plane) into complex reflection ( Plane)
Just as we wrote reflection coeff. in terms of normalized impedance
Z Z0 Z 1
Z Z0 Z 1
We can also write complex impedance in terms of reflection coeff.
1
Z
1
Smith Chart
We can re-write the previous equation as
1 u jv (1)
R jX
1 u jv
If we rationalize the above equation and separate the real and
imaginary parts
Comparing real parts we get
R
R 1
u
u v 2
0
R 1
R 1
2
Equation (2) represents a circle on complex - Plane which is a locus

of constant resistance values
(2)
R
Its center is
,0
R 1
and its radius
1
R 1

Smith Chart Constant Resistance Circles
R
,0
R 1
Its center is
and its radius
1
R 1
jv
R 0
R 1
R 2
R
1
Note : All values of are R positive
Smith Chart Constant Reactance Circles

Similarly comparing imaginary parts of equation (1), gives us
2
u v 2u
v 1 0 (3)
X
2
Equation (3) represents a circle on complex - Plane which is a locus

of constant reactance values
jv
1
Its center is 1,
X
X 1
X 2
1
and its radius
X
X 0
R 0 Circle
Note : X Could be negative
u
X 2
X 1

Smith Chart
Plotting Constant resistance & reactance circles together gives us

the Smith chart
jv
Const. Resistance Circles
Const. Reactance Circles
For passive loads, all impedances will lie within || = 1 circle, therefore
we neglect reactances that fall outside this circle.

Impedance Smith Chart Special Points
jv
R 0, X 0
Short Circuit
R 0, X 1
Inductive Reactance
R , X
Open Circuit
u
R 1, X 0
Resistive Load
R 0, X 1
Capacitive Reactance

Impedance Smith Chart
Admittance Smith Chart


ds
Lecture - 18

Complex Admittance or Y - Plane
Admittance or Y - Plane is where you can uniquely define

admittances by its constituents Conductance & Susceptance
Y G jB
It maybe convenient to use admittances when using shunt elements,
therefore we normalize admittances with characteristic admittance
Y
Y G jB
Y0
Normalized
Admittance
Normalized
Conductance
Normalized
Susceptance
jB
Passive load
Capacitive
load
jB
G
Inductive
load

Complex Reflection or - Plane

The complex reflection or - Plane is a coordinate plane where
you can uniquely represent any reflection arising out of mismatched passive impedances
Phase of Reflection
j
Complex Reflection Coeff.

Magnitude of Reflection
Z Z0 Z 1
Z Z0 Z 1
jv
Y0 Y 1 Y
Y 1 j
e
Y0 Y 1 Y
Y 1
| | = 1 circle
||
||
1
jv

jv
G , B
Short Circuit
G 0, B 1
Capacitive Susceptance
G 0, B 0
Open Circuit
u
G 1, B 0
Conductive Load
G 0, B 1
Inductive Susceptance

Smith Chart Combined
Blue lines correspond to

admittance and Red
lines to impedance
respectively

Smith Chart A simpler Approach

The combined Admittance Impedance Smith Chart looks
complicated when one has to plot load values
The easier approach is to use same Impedance Smith Chart for
plotting both admittances and impedances, since impedance or
admittance corresponds to same normalized values
The only difference comes with phase, hence any impedance
value rotated by and angle of 1800 on Smith Chart gives us
admittance
jv
Smith Chart - Constant VSWR Circles

The complex reflection coefficient can be written as
e j
The Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) can be written in terms of
the reflection coefficient as
VSWR(s )
jv
| | = 0.5 circle, s = 3
1
| | = 1 circle, s =
| | = 0 circle, s = 1

Smith Chat - Complex Reflection Coefficient
The complex reflection coefficient at any point on a lossless

transmission line is
(l ) L e
2 j l
L e e
2 jl
L e
j ( 2 l )
So, the magnitude of the reflection |L| remains constant whereas, the
phase changes by an amount ( - 2l)
The phase ( - 2l) is more
negative, if we are increasing l, or
in other words, if we are moving
towards generator
jv
||
And the phase ( - 2l) is more

positive of l decreases , i,e, when
we move towards load
| | = 1 circle
To Load
2l
To Generator

Smith Chat - Complex Reflection Coefficient
If the characteristic impedance Z0 and load impedance ZL are

given and we need to find complex reflection coefficient
ZL
R jX
Step 1 : Z
Z0
Step 2 : Plot R & X on complex - Plane
jv
R jX
Step 3 : Draw a line from center to R jX
jv
Step 4 : is angle of |L| with +u - axis
Smith Chart Basic Calculations


ds
Lecture - 19

Smith Chart Input Impedance
If the characteristic Z0 and load ZL impedances are given and we

need to find impedance at a distance l from load
ZL
R jX
Step 1 : Z L
Z0
jv
Step 3 : Draw a circle from center touching

the load point
jv
Const. VSWR Circle
R jX

Smith Chart Input Impedance
One full rotation on the smith chart corresponds to an angle of 2

which is equal to 2l in electrical length
2 2 l l
So, one full rotation on smith chart corresponds to a length of /2.

Step 4 : For given l, calculate 2l, and equivalent angle of rotation L
jv
Step 5 : Find the R & X circles that intersect

at Z in R jX
jv
ZL
ZL
2l
u
Z in
Z in

Smith Chart VSWR

To find VSWR (s) on Smith chart, we should know what Zmax and
Zmin points are
j 2 jl
1 e e
1 e 2 jl
Z Z0
Z0
2 j l
1 e
1 e j e 2 jl
So, the Z is maximum when - 2l = 0 and minimum when - 2l =
Z max Z 0
1
1
& Z min Z 0
1
1
But we know that VSWR & reflection coefficient are related by
1
1
Therefore s in terms of max. and min. impedances is

3
Z max Z 0 s
Z min
1
Z0
s

Smith Chart VSWR
If the characteristic Z0 and load ZL impedances are given and we

need to find VSWR on the transmission line
ZL
R jX
Step 1 : Z L
Z0

Step 3 : Draw const. VSWR circle through load point
ZL
1/s
jv
s
u
Const. VSWR
Circle
Step 4 : The point where const.

VSWR circle cuts the real axis
nearest to R = circle is the
required VSWR s.
Smith Chart Maxima & Minima

We know that impedance is the ratio of voltage to current
Z
alternately Z min
Vmin
I max
Vmin , Imax
Const. VSWR
Circle
ZL
Step 1 : Z L
R jX
Z0
jv
ZL
V
V
Z max max
I
I min
Step 3 : Draw const. VSWR

circle through load point
2 lmax
u
Vmax , Imin
Step 4 : The distance of Vmax

or Imin is obtained as
lmax
Similarly for Vmin or Imax
Review Problems & Solutions


ds
Lecture - 20
Let Us Solve These

Problems
16. A load of 100 + j 150 is connected to a 75 lossless line.
Find using Smith chart (i) (ii) s (iii) The load admittance YL
(iv) Zin at 0.4 from the load (v) location of Vmax and Vmin w.r.t.
load if the line is 0.6 long (vi) Zin at the generator
17. Calculate the time averaged power delivered to the load in the
given circuit
i(z)
Z0 = 50
Zg = 50
Vg = 100 V
1
ZL = 40 + j 30
vin
Vp = 200 m/s
f = 26 MHz
Zin
-l
4.808 m
Z=0

Let Us Solve These

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Introduction to Transmission Lines & Fields

06/01/2015, Jagadish C. Mudiganti

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Transmission Lines Primary Constants

Transmission Lines Primary Constants

Impedance can now be written as Z R jX

These basic operations with complex numbers are useful

Addition of two complex numbers

Transmission Line Equations

Transmission Line Equations

ECE202 Transmission Lines & Fiel

Transmission Line Equations

Equivalent Circuit Representation

It should be noted that transmission line is a distributed form of the

Equivalent Circuit Representation

Transmission Line Equations

Transmission Line Equations

Why z Section of Transmission Line ?

Why are we dividing the transmission line into small sections of

Transmission Line Equations

Why We Use V & I Parameters?

Transmission Line Equations

Transmission Line Equations

Similarly we apply Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL) to the circuit

Transmission Line Equations

Re-arranging the previous equations we have

The equivalent circuit approximation will be close to actual

Similarly re-arranging the KCL equation and applying the limit z 0

Equations (1) & (2) are Coupled Transmission Line or Telegraphers