Professional Documents
Culture Documents
By
D.K.Nanda
Pavement
Geometric Design
Horizontal Alignment
The selection of road alignment is broadly based on the
following:
a)Maximum comfort to road user.
b)Least social and environmental adverse impact.
c)Least displacement and loss of public property ,
monuments , religious structures
d)Location of required drainage structures.
e)Availability of land
f)Topography
Horizontal Curves
In general horizontal curves consists of a circular
portion flanked by spiral transitions at both ends.
Design speed, super elevation and coefficient of side
friction affect the design of circular curves.
Length of transition curves is determined on the basis
of rate of change of centrifugal acceleration or the rate of
change of super elevation.
Super elevation
Super elevation required on horizontal curves is calculated
using the following formula, which assumes that centrifugal force
corresponding to three-fourth the design speed is balanced by
super elevation and the rest counteracted by side friction.
e=V/225R where,
e= super elevation, V=design speed in Km/hr. R=radius in meters
The super elevation obtained from the above equation should
however be kept limited to the following values.
a)In plain & rolling terrain
7%
b)In snow bound areas
7%
c)In hilly areas not bound by snow
10%
Circular curves
On a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force is balanced
by the combined effects of super elevation and side
friction . From the basic equation of equilibrium it can
be found that
R = V/127(e+f) where, V=speed in Km/hour,
e = Super elevation , f = coefficient of side friction
between tyre and pavement( taken as 0.15) ,R= Radius of
circular curve in meter
Based on this equation, and the maximum permissible
values of super elevation, the radius of circular curve
corresponding to design speed is worked out.
Transition curves
Transition curves are necessary for a vehicle to have
smooth entry from a straight section into a circular curve.
The transition curves also permit gradual application of
super elevation at the horizontal curves. Spiral curves are
generally used as transition curves.
The minimum length of transition curves required is
determined from the following two considerations and the
larger of the two values is adopted for design.
Vertical Alignment
The vertical alignment should provide for a smooth
longitudinal profile consistent with the category of the
road and lay of the terrain.
Grade changes should not be too frequent as to cause
kinks and visual discontinuities in the profile
Desirably there should be no change in grade within a
distance of 150 meters.
Gradients
Grades should be carefully selected keeping in view the
design speed, terrain conditions and nature of traffic. The
recommended values of gradients for different classes of
terrain are as below.
Terrain
Plain/ Rolling
Ruling
Gradient
3.3%
Limiting
Gradient.
5%
Exceptional
Gradient.
6.7%
Mountainous
Elevation>3000m
5%
6%
7%
Mountainous
Elevation <3000m
6%
7%
8%
Gradient Contd
On un kerbed pavement s in embankment, near-level
grades are not objectionable when the pavement has
sufficient camber to drain the storm water laterally.
In cut sections or where the pavement is provided with
kerbs, it is necessary that the road should have some
gradient for efficient drainage.
Desirable minimum gradient for this purpose is 0.5
percent if the side drains are lined and 1 percent if these
are unlined.
Vertical Curves
Vertical curves are introduced for smooth transition at
30.00
50.00
60.00
Summit Curves
The length of summit curves is governed by the choice
of sight distance. The length is calculated on the basis of
the following formula.
For safe stopping sight distance:
a)When length of curve exceeds the required sight
distance i.e. L>S
L = NS/4.4 where N= Algebraic difference between
the two grades, L = Length of curve in meters , S = Sight
distance in meters.
Summit Curves
b) When L is less than S
L = 2S 4.4/N
For Intermediate or overtaking sight distance
a)When L is greater than S, L = NS/9.6
a) When L is less than S,
L = 2S 9.6/N
Valley Curves
The length of valley curves should be such that for night
travel, the headlight beam distance is equal to the stopping
sight distance . The length of the valley curve is calculated
as under.
When L is greater than S
a)L = NS/(1.5+0.035S)
When L is less than S
b)L = 2S (1.5+0.035S)/N where.
N = Algebraic difference between the two grades,
L = Length of curve in meters.
S = Stopping sight distance in meters.
Design of Pavement
Pavement
Pavement is part of the road crust
above the sub grade/formation .
Bituminous Layer
Granular
Granular Base Base
Sub grade
Function of Pavement
The function of the pavement is to
carry heavy wheel loads of vehicles
and to transfer the same over a wide
area of the sub grade soil permitting
the deformations within elastic or
allowable range.
Pavement Classification
Pavements are broadly classified into two
categories namely:
i. Flexible Pavement.
ii.Rigid Pavement.
The choice of Pavement to be adopted for
construction for any particular section of
road is dependent on factors such as rainfall
in the area, availability of budget etc.
Traffic
For the purpose of design of flexible pavements only the
number of commercial vehicles of laden weight of 3.0Mt or
more and their axle load is considered.
The initial daily traffic for any road is normally based on
7days 24 hour traffic count.
An estimate of likely traffic growth rate is obtained by
studying the past trends. In the absence of any past trends an
average value of 7.50 percent is adopted for design.
Design Life
It is considered appropriate that roads in rural areas to be
designed for a design life of 10-15 years.
Initially due to financial reasons if it is not possible to
construct the full depth of pavement at the same time, stage
construction techniques is resorted to in such cases as the
traffic increases.
Computation of traffic
The design traffic is considered in terms of cumulative
number of standard axles to be carried during the design life
of the pavement.
The following equation is used for the computation:
N = 365xA{(1+r) - 1} x F xDxL/r Where,
N=Cumulative no of standard axles to be catered for
design
A=Initial traffic, in the year of construction,in terms of
number of commercial vehicles per day duly modified to
account for lane distribution.
Computation of traffic
Distribution of traffic
Single lane road(3.75m width): Traffic tends to be more
channelised on single lane roads than on two lane roads
and to allow for this concentration of wheel load
repetitions the design should be based on the total number
of commercial vehicles per day in both directions
multiplied by 2.
Intermediate lane roads( 5.5m width): The design should
be based on total number of commercial vehicles per day
in both directions multiplied by 1.5
Distribution of traffic
Two lane single carriageway roads : The design
should be based on 75 percent of the total number of
commercial vehicles in both directions.
Four lane single carriageway roads : The design
should be based on 40 percent of the total number of
commercial vehicles in both directions.
Dual carriageway roads : The design of dual two lane
carriageway roads should be based on 75 percent of the
number of commercial vehicles in each direction. The
distribution factor shall be reduced by 20 percent for
each additional lane.
Terrain VDF
VDF
VDF
Values
Values
Values
Commercial
Unsurface Thin
Thick
vehicle per
d
bituminou bituminou
day
s
s
surfacing surfacing
Less than
Hilly
0.50
0.75
150
Rolling
1.50
1.75
Plain
2.00
2.25
150-1500
Hilly
1.00
1.25
Rolling
2.00
2.25
Plain
2.50
2.75
More than
Hilly
1.25
1.50
1500
Rolling
2.25
2.50
Construction
The construction of a highway essentially involves the
construction of the following layers of pavement and
under laying embankment.
Bituminous wearing course
Bituminous base course
Granular base course
Granular sub base
Selected sub grade
Embankment
Resources
The resources required for the construction of a
For
a)Wheel Loader
b)Dumper
c)Motor Grader
d)Water Tanker
e)Vibratory Roller
f)Related Laboratory Equipments
a)Wheel Loader
b)Pugmil
c)Dumper
d)Sensor Paver
e)Vibratory Roller
f)Water Tanker
g)Related Laboratory equipments
Concrete Works
Stone Crusher
DG Sets
Articulated Trailor
Light Masts
Mobile Service Unit
Bar shearing & Cutting Machine
Lathe
Circular saw
Welding Equipment
Conveyance Vehicle & Ambulance
Magazine
Construction Material
The major construction material involved in construction of
Highway are
Soil/Fly ash
Stone aggregates
Cement & Lime
Steel and HT strands
Bitumen & Bitumen Emulsion
Bearings & Expansion Joints
Road furniture such as Thermoplastic road marking, Metal
beam crash barrier, Road signage, Kilometer stones, Roadway
indicators, Road studs, etc.
Manpower
The typical organization of Manpower at a project site are as
follows:
Employer representative: Project Director & supporting staff.
Engineer & his representative appointed by the Employer.
Contractors representative & his supporting staff.
Contractors skilled & Unskilled labor.
Sequence of Construction
Setting out
Setting out
This essentially
Control Points.
Method Statement
First the toe line of the embankment after allowing for drains is
marked on the ground using pegs/lime powder by taking
measurements from the road centre line.
Once this is done, the trees/ structures falling within this limit is
identified & marked for their removal.
Pre measurements of the tree girths/ dimension of structures to
be removed are then recorded prior to their removal.
A suitable equipment such as an excavator/Dozer is deployed
for removal of the trees/structures and the materials are then
disposed off at designated location using dumpers/tractors as
approved by the Engineer.
Construction Operation
After the site has been cleared, the limit of embankment/Sub grade
is marked with pegs at suitable intervals on the ground after
allowing extra 500mm for trimming of embankment slope at a latter
date to ensure that the remaining material is to the desired density
and conforms to specified side slope.
The original ground is then levelled , watered and then compacted
by rolling so as to achieve minimum dry density of 95%.
If the ground forms a part of the sub grade and the materials within
the subgrade limit is suitable but does not have 97% compaction
,then the ground is loosened upto subgrade bottom, watered and then
compacted in layers not exceeding 200mm thickness to 97% of
maximum dry density . If the materials within the subgrade limit is
not suitable, then the same is removed and replaced by suitable
materials and compacted in layers of 200mm thickness to 97% MDD.
Compaction of GSB
% passing by weight
100
95-100
60-80
40-60
25-40
15-30
8 22
0-8
Prime Coat
Material: The choice of bituminous primer is dependent on the
porosity of the surface to be primed as detailed below.
Type of surface
Viscosity in
centistoke @ 60C
Rate of application
in Kg per 10 sqm.
Low porosity
30 60
6 to 9
Medium Porosity
70 140
9 to 12
High Porosity
250 500
12 to 15
Prime Coat
The primer shall be bitumen emulsion, complying with IS 8887
of a type and grade as specified in the contract.
The use of medium curing cutback as per IS 217 shall be
restricted only for sites at sub-zero temperatures.
The surface to be primed shall be swept clean of dust and loose
particles , care being taken not to disturb the inter locked
aggregates. This is best achieved when the surface layer is slightly
moist . For this purpose a mechanical bromer is used to loosen the
dust from the surface which is then blown out using a compressor
mounted on a tractor.
A bitumen sprayer (calibrated earlier for application pressure
and speed of movement) carrying the required primer is then used
to prime the surface. The rate of actual spray is then found out by
the tray test . The primed surface is allowed to cure for at least 24
hours
Tack Coat
Material: The binder used for tack coat shall be a bitumen
emulsion complying with IS 8887 of a type and grade as specified
in the contract.
The use of cutback bitumen as per IS 217 shall be restricted only
for sites at sub-zero temperatures.
The surface on which tack coat is to be applied shall be clean
and free from dust, dirt, and any extraneous material.
Immediately before the application of tack coat, the surface shall
be swept clean with a mechanical broom, and high pressure air jet.
The application of tack coat shall be at the rate specified in the
contract.
The rate of application of tack coat for various types of surface
shall be as per the table 500-2.
0.2 to 0.25
0.25 to 0.30
0.25 to 0.30
0.35 to 0.40
0.30 to 0.35
Tack Coat
The normal range of spraying temperature for bituminous
emulsion shall be 20C to 70C and for a cutback 50C to 80C if
rapid curing/setting material is used.
Where the surface to receive an overlay is a freshly laid
bituminous surface which has not been subjected to traffic, or
contaminated by dust, a tack coat is not mandatory where the
overlay is completed within two days.
The tack coat is applied by the help of a bitumen sprayer
calibrated to required application pressure and speed of movement
for the desired rate of application.
The tack coat is left to cure until all the volatiles have evaporated
before any subsequent construction is started.
Base course
Dense Bituminous Macadam
Scope: Construction of dense graded bituminous
macadam(DBM) for use in base course in single or multiple
layers on a previously prepared base or sub base.
The thickness of a single layer shall be between 50mm to
100mm as stipulated in the contract.
The minimum compaction requirement shall be 98% of marshal
density.
Material
Bitumen: The bitumen shall be paving bitumen of penetration
grade 60/70(S65) or 80/100(S90) as specified in the contract and
shall conform with the Indian standard IS:73. Modified bitumen
such as CRMB or PMB may be used if specified in the contract.
Coarse aggregate: The coarse aggregate shall consists of crushed
rock retained on 2.36mm sieve . The aggregates shall be clean,
hard ,durable, of cubical shape, free from dust organic or other
deleterious substance . If the aggregates have poor affinity for
bitumen, then the bitumen shall be treated with an approved anti
striping agent .
Filler
Filler shall consists if finely divided mineral matter such as
rock dust, hydrated lime or cement as stipulated in the contract.
The filler shall be free from organic impurities and have a
plasticity index not greater than 4. The plasticity index limit shall
not apply if the filler is lime or cement.
Cement or hydrated lime is not required when the lime stone
aggregate is used.
Where the aggregate fail to meet the requirements of water
sensitivity test , then 2% by total weight of aggregate, of hydrated
lime shall be used.
The filler shall conform to the grading requirements as per table
500-9 of MORTH specification.
Cumulative % passing by
weight of total aggregate.
600 micron
100
300 micron
95-100
75 micron
85-100
Table 500-10
Grading
I
II
Nominal aggregate
40 mm
25 mm
Layer thickness
80-100mm
50-75mm
IS Sieve
Cumulative % by weight of total aggregate passing
45
100
37.5
95-100
100
26.5
63-93
90-100
19
71-95
13.2
55-75
56-80
4.75
38-54
38-54
2.36
28-42
28-42
0.30
07-21
07-21
0.075
02-08
02-08
Bitumen content %
Minimum 4%
Minimum 4.5%
By mass of total mix
Bitumen grade
S65 or S90
S65 or S90
Design criterion-DBM
The mixture shall meet the following requirements:
TABLE: 500-11
Table 500-12
Nominal maximum
Minimum VMA % related to design
Particle size in mm
air voids in %
3%
4%
5%
9.5
14
15
16
12.5
13
14
15
19
12
13
14
25
11
12
13
37.5
10
11
12
Binder Content
The binder content shall be optimized to achieve the
requirement of the mixture as stated earlier.
The marshal method for determining the optimum binder content
is adopted as described in asphalt institute manual MS2 by
replacing the aggregate retained on 26.5mm sieve by the
aggregates passing the 26.5mm sieve and retained on 22.4mm
sieve.
Where the maximum nominal size of aggregate used is 40mm,
the modified marshal method described in MS2 is used.In this case
the minimum stability value as stated earlier is multiplied by 2.25
and the minimum flow shall be 3 mm.
Plant trials
Once the laboratory job mix formula is approved, plant trials is
carried out at the mixer to establish that the plant can be set up to
produce a uniform mix conforming to the approved job mix
formula.
The permissible variations in the individual percentages of the
various ingredients in the actual mix from the job mix formula to
be used shall be within the limits specified in Table 500-13.
Once the plant trials have demonstrated the capability of the
plant and the trials are approved, the laying operation can
commence.
Table 500-13
(Permissible variation from JMF)
Aggregate passing
sieve size
19mm or larger
13.2mm & 9.5mm
4.75mm
2.36,1.18 & 0.6mm
300& 150 micron
75 micron
Binder content
Mixing temperature
7%
6%
5%
4%
3%
1.5%
0.3%
10C
Laying trials
Once the plant trials are approved, the laying trials are carried
out to demonstrate that the proposed mix can be successfully laid
and compacted.
The laying trials are carried out in an area not forming part of the
permanent works.
The area of laying trial shall be minimum 100 sqm of
construction similar to that of the project road, and it shall be in all
respect, particularly compaction, the same as the project
construction on which the bituminous material is to be laid.
The density of finished paving layer shall be determined by
taking cores after 24 hours.
Once the laying trial is approved, the same plant & methodology
is then followed in laying of the material on the project.
Construction Operation
The mix produced from the Hot mix plant is discharged on to the
dumper standing below the hopper in batches till the dumper is
filled to its capacity. The mix is then covered with a tarpaulin to
avoid contamination with dust during the travel. This also prevents
the mix to retain its temperature during transit.
The area to be paved are primed in advance and are swept clean
from dust and other extraneous material by using a mechanical
broom , and a jet of compressed air before the commencement of
paving.
Level stakes are fixed on either side of the carriageway to be
paved to required level . The top of the stakes are tied with a string
line which is stretched to avoid sagging between the stakes using
winches fixed to the ground at both ends.
Construction Operation
The Paver is then set to the required screed level using packing
below the screed. The heating of the screed is then started to bring
the screed temperature above 100C prior to paving to avoid sticking
of mix to the screed.
The sensors attached to the paver are then set on the string line on
both sides for level and cross fall control.
Once the paver setting is complete, the dumper carrying the mix is
brought inside the paving area after checking the mix temperature
for its acceptance.
The dumper then gradually unloads the mix into the paver hopper
wherefrom the mix is conveyed to the auger box through the belt
conveyor.
While paving the paver pushes the dumper forward while the
dumper unloads the mix gradually into the paver hopper.
Compaction of DBM
Construction Operation
The mix in the auger box is then spread over the entire width of
the bed through the rotary spiral action of the augers.
As the paver moves forward, the screed moves over the mix
imparting initial compaction through vibration of the screed and the
tamping bar attached to the screed. The screed gives a smooth finish
to the surface of the mix and pushes forward the extra material .
While the paving continues, grades and cross fall are checked
with respect to a string tied across the level stakes facing each other
on either side by taking dip measurements.
The actual levels of the paved surface is then compared with the
corresponding design level by allowing for the compaction factor.
Points found beyond tolerance are then immediately corrected by
trimming high points and adding hot mix at low points.
Construction operation
Tandem smooth wheeled vibratory roller having controlled water
sprinkling arrangement over drums shall be used for rolling the hot
mix.
The rolling shall immediately start with a initial plain pass of the
tandem roller to give a set to the mix in its position.
Rolling shall start in the longitudinal direction from the lower
edge and proceed towards the upper edge with at least one third
overlap of each adjacent track . The speed of the roller shall not
exceed 5Km/hr.
After the initial plain pass is complete, subsequent rolling is
continued with vibratory passes until no roller mark is visible on the
Construction operation
A pneumatic tyre roller(PTR) is also used for rolling along with
tandem roller . The PTR imparts kneading action to the surface of
the mix and thus gives a close finish to the surface.
The rolling is terminated with a final plain pass of the tandem
roller once no roller mark is visible on the surface.
All the rolling operation shall be completed before the
temperature of the mix falls below 100C.
After 24 hours of laying , cores are taken from the surface for
determination of density and the laid surface is checked for
surface levels and surface regularities . The permitted tolerance in
surface level being 6mm and 6mm for surface regularity.
Table 500-17
Physical requirements of C.A. for BC
Grain size : Maximum 5% passing 75 micron sieve.
Combined flakiness & elongation index: Maximum 30%
Los angeles abrasion value: Maximum 30%
Aggregate impact value: Maximum 24%
Polished stone value: Minimum 55
Soundness: with sodium sulphate : Maximum 12%
with magnesium sulphate : Maximum 18%
Water absorption: Maximum 2%
Stripping: Minimum retained coating 95%
Water sensitivity: Retained tensile strength of Minimum 80%
Filler
Filler shall be finely divided mineral matter such as rock dust,
hydrated lime or cement as specifically specified in the contract.
The filler shall have the grading as indicated in table 500-9
stated under DBM earlier.
The filler shall have plasticity index not greater than 4 if the
filler is rock dust. This limit of PI shall not apply to foreign fillers
such as hydrated lime or cement if used.
If the coarse aggregate is gravel, 2% by weight of total
aggregate, shall be portland cement or hydrated lime and the % of
fine aggregate reduced accordingly.
Table: 500-18
Grading
1
2
Nominal aggregate size 19mm
13mm
Layer thickness
50-65mm
30-45mm
IS Sieve(mm)
Cumulative % passing by wt. of total aggregate
26.50
100
19.00
79-100
100
13.20
59-79
79-100
9.50
52-72
70-88
4.75
35-55
53-71
2.36
28-44
42-58
1.18
20-34
34-48
0.60
15-27
26-38
0.30
10-20
18-28
0.15
5-13
12-20
0.075
2-8
4-10
Bitumen content % by
5.0 to 6.0
5.0 to 7.0
Mass of total mix
Bitumen grade
S65
S65
Design Mix
Requirement for the mixture: Apart from the combined grading
and quality requirements for individual ingredients , the mixture
shall meet the following requirement.
TABLE: 500-19
Binder Content
The binder content shall be optimized to achieve the
requirement of the mixture as stated under design mix.
The marshal method for determining the optimum binder
content shall be adopted as described in asphalt institute manual
MS2 by replacing the aggregate retained on 26.5mm sieve by the
aggregates passing the 26.5mm sieve and retained on 22.4mm
sieve.
Construction Operations
Preparation of base: The surface on which bituminous concrete is
to be laid is thoroughly swept clean by mechanical broom and dust
removed by compressed air.
Tack Coat: If specified in the contract, a tack coat shall be
applied at rates as specified.
Level stakes at suitable intervals i.e. 10m c/c for straight
alignment and 5m c/c for curves are fixed on each side of the
carriageway to be paved and their top adjusted to desired level .A
string line is then tightly tied connecting each of the stakes with the
help of winches.
The mix produced in the plant is brought to site, laid using sensor
paver and compacted to desired density as described earlier for
dense bituminous macadam.
Opening to traffic
After 24 hours of laying, cores are taken from the surface for
ascertaining % compaction. The surface is then checked for
levels and surface regularity. The acceptable limit of tolerance
for surface level being 6mm and 3mm for surface regularity
when checked with a 3m straight edge.
The newly laid surface is then opened to traffic.
THANK YOU