Contents

Ref: - Supplementary Notes for TA C222

 Soil Classification
 Grain Size Distribution
 Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit
 Field Identification of Soils
Rock Cycle – Soil Formation

Soils The final products

due to weathering are
soils
 Introduction
Object:
To keep various types of soils into groups according to
their properties
Soil consisting of similar characteristics Can be
placed in the SAME Group

Need:
To find the suitability of the soil for construction of
dams, highways and foundations
 Types of Soil Classification

1. Partcle Size Classification

2. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
3. Textural Classification
4. Public Roads Administration Classification
(AASHTO, 1978)
 Particle Size Classification

 Soils are according to Grain Size

 Various grain size classifications are in use
 Grain size distribution of soil is required
 Percentage of soil in each size group is
determined

Example: Soil 10% Gravel + 52% Sand + 38% Silt & Clay
 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

Origin of USCS:
This system was first developed by Professor Casagrande (1948)
for the purpose of airfield construction during World War II.
Afterwards, it was modified by Professor Casagrande to enable the
system to be applicable to dams, foundations, and other
construction

Four major divisions:

(1) Coarse-grained
(2) Fine-grained
(3) Organic soils
(4) Peat
 Fine Grained
Coarse Grained Soils Soils

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

Boulders Cobbles
Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine

300 mm 80 mm 4.75 mm 0.075 0.002

mm mm

20 mm 2.0 mm 0.425 mm

Unified Soil Classification System

 Unified Soil Classification System

50 %
Coarse-grained soils: Fine-grained soils:
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
4.75 mm
0.075 mm

•Grain size distribution •PL, LL

•Cu •Plasticity chart

•Cc
Sieve analysis Atterberg limits
 Particle size USCS

Question
For the purpose of engineering descriptions, soils are divided into classes of similar grain size.
The NOUNS used to describe a size class refer to a specific range of sizes.

What is the range of sizes of SAND?

0.075 mm to 0.425 mm
0.425 mm to 4.75 mm
0.075 mm to 4.75 mm
0.075 – 4.75 mm
2.0 mm to 4.75 mm

What is the range of sizes of FINE SAND particles?

0.075 mm to 0.425 mm
0.425 mm to 4.75 mm
0.075 mm to 4.75 mm 0.075 – 0.425 mm
2.0 mm to 4.75 mm
 Particle size USCS

Question
For the purpose of engineering descriptions, soils are divided into classes of similar grain size.
The NOUNS used to describe a size class refer to a specific range of sizes.

What is the range of sizes of MEDIUM SAND?

0.075 mm to 0.425 mm
0.425 mm to 2.0 mm
0.075 mm to 4.75 mm
0.425 – 2.0 mm
2.0 mm to 4.75 mm

What is the range of sizes of SILT particles?

0.002 mm to 0.425 mm
0.002 mm to 4.75 mm
0.002 mm to 0.075 mm 0.002 – 0.075 mm
<0.002 mm
 Particle size USCS

Question
For the purpose of engineering descriptions, soils are divided into classes of similar grain size.
The NOUNS used to describe a size class refer to a specific range of sizes.

What is the range of sizes of Gravel?

2 mm to 4.75 mm
4.75 mm to 20 mm
4.75 mm to 80 mm
4.75 – 80 mm
20 mm to 80 mm

What is the range of sizes of CLAY particles?

0.002 mm to 0.425 mm
0.002 mm to 4.75 mm
0.002 mm to 0.075 mm < 0.002 mm
<0.002 mm
 Classification of Coarse Grained Soils
Grain Size Distribution
•Experiment
Coarse-grained soils: Fine-grained soils:
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
0.075 mm (USCS)

Sieve analysis Hydrometer analysis

Procedure for grain size determination
 Sieving - used for particles > 75 µ m

 Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

 Analysis based on Stoke’s Law, velocity proportional to diameter

At the beginning Towards the end of test

Schematic diagram of hydrometer test

 Grain Size Distribution Curves
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20
D60
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

D60
Cu =
D10
2
x% of the soil has particles
D
Cc = 30 smaller than Dx
( D60 × D10 )
where CU is Coefficient of Uniformity and Cc is Coefficient of Curvature
 Grain Size Distribution Curves
100

E B
80 A
% Finer

60

40 D
C
20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
A Well graded Soil
B Uniform Soil (or Poorly Graded Soil)
C Gap Graded Soil (or Poorly graded soil)
D Well graded with some fines
E Well graded with an excess of fines
 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

To determine Well Graded (W) or Poorly Graded (P), calculate Cu and Cc.

D D302
Cu = 60 Cc =
D10 ( D60 × D10 )

where CU is Coefficient of Uniformity and Cc is Coefficient of Curvature

If prefix is G (Gravel) then suffix is W if Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 and 3

otherwise use P

If prefix is S (Sand) then suffix is W if Cu > 6 and Cc is between 1 and 3

otherwise use P
 USCS
Describe the following Soil
D10 = 0.02 mm (effective size)
D 30 = 0.6 mm
D 60 = 9 mm Criteria
Coefficient of uniformity Well − graded soil
Cu =
D 60
=
9
= 450
1 < Cc ≤ 3 and Cu > 4
D10 0.02 ( for gravels)
Coefficient of curvature 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3 and Cu > 6
(D 30 ) 2 (0.6) 2
Cc = = =2 ( for sands)
(D10 )(D 60 ) (0.02)(9)

 Well Graded Soil

Question

What is the Cu for a soil with only one grain

size?

Coefficient of uniformity
Finer

D60
Cu = =1
D10

Grain size distribution

 Question

The grading curve for a soil gives the size

characteristics:

d10 = 0.16 mm and d60 = 0.47 mm

What is the Uniformity coefficient

(Cu) and gradation of the soil?
0.34, well graded
2.94, well graded
2.94, uniformly graded
0.34, uniformly graded

2.94, Uniformly (or Poorly) Graded Sand

 USCS
Classification of Fine Grained Soils

-- Atterberg Limits (or Consistency Limits)

Soil-water
mixture Liquid State
Liquid Limit, LL
Increasing water content

Plastic State
Plastic Limit, PL
Semisolid State
Shrinkage Limit, SL
Solid State
Dry Soil
Atterberg Limits (or Consistency Limits) - Cont.

Volume Change with water content

 Liquid and plastic limits
Question
The figure shows how volume and water content are related
in fine soils. Identify the consistency of zones A, B and C?

Where
ws: shrinkage limit
wP: Plastic Limit
wL: Liquid Limit

A. Semi-solid
B. Plastic
C. Liquid
 Liquid and plastic limits

The lower and upper limits of the

PLASTIC range are used to
classify the fine soils.

Plastic Limit, Liquid Limit

 Plasticity Index

The difference between the liquid limit

(wL) and plastic limit (wP) is called as
PLASTICITY INDEX (P.I.)

Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit

 Liquid Limit - LL (or wL)

• Casagrande Method
Professor Casagrande standardized the test and
developed the liquid limit device.

• Cone Penetrometer Method

This method is developed by the Transport and Road
Research Laboratory, UK.
 LL - Casagrande Method
•Device

N=25 blows
Closing distance =
10 mm

The water content, in percentage, required to close a distance of 10 mm along

the bottom of the groove after 25 blows is defined as the liquid limit
 LL - Casagrande Method (Cont.)

w1 − w2
Flow index, I F =
log( N 2 / N1 )
LL - Cone Penetrometer Method
31o Cone of Stainless steel
Total sliding weight of 148 g
Cylindrical mould of 5 cm diameter and 5 cm height.

Penetration of cone (mm)

25 mm

LL
Water content w%

wL = wx + 0.01(25 − x)( wx + 15) For x = 20 to 30

Where x is the depth of penetration of cone in mm

wx is water content corresponding to penetration x
 Plastic Limit – PL (or wP)

The plastic limit is defined as the water content at which a

soil thread with 3 mm diameter just crumbles.
 SYMBOLS Used for USCS Soil Classification
 Soil symbols:  Liquid limit symbols:
 G: Gravel  H: High LL (LL > 50)
 S: Sand  L: Low LL (LL < 50)
 M: Silt
 C: Clay  Gradation symbols:
 O: Organic  W: Well-graded
 Pt: Peat  P: Poorly-graded
Well − graded soil
1  Cc ≤ 3 and Cu > 4
Ex: SW: Well-graded Sand
( for gravels)
SC: Clayey Sand
SM: Silty Sand
1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3 and Cu > 6
( for sands )
 USCS
Classification of Fine Grained Soils
Fine grained soils  Silt (M) & Clay (C)
To determine M or C use plasticity chart
60
o p ari n g s oils at e q u al liq ui d li m it
50 To u g h n e ss a n d d r y stre n gth in cre a se
l in
e Plasticity
w ith in c re a sin g pla sticity in x de A"
"
Chart
Plasticity index

40
CH
30
A – Line
20 OH
CL or PI = 0.73(wL – 20)
10 CL OL
or MH
ML
0 ML
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
L iq u id li m it

Above A-line use suffix C – Clay Use “O” below

Below A-line use suffix M – Silt A – Line, if Soil
LL < 50% use Prefix L is Organic
LL > 50% use Prefix H
 USCS
Classification of Fine Grained Soils - Cont.
Borderline Cases (Dual Symbols)

Fine-grained soils with limits within the shaded zone (i.e., PI

between 4 and 7 and LL between 12 and 25).
It is hard to distinguish between the silt and claylike
materials.
Use: CL-ML: Silty clay & SC-SM: Silty, clayed sand.

Coarse-grained soils with 5% - 12% fines.

The first symbol indicates whether the coarse fraction is
well or poorly graded.
The second symbol describe the contained fines (M/C).
Example: SP-SM: Poorly graded Sand with Silt.
 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

Coarse-grained
material
Grain size
distribution

Fine-grained
material
LL, PI

Highly
 USCS
Passing No.200 (0.075 mm) sieve = 30 % LL= 33%
Example
Passing No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve = 70 % PI= 12%

Passing No.200 sieve 30 %

Passing No.4 sieve 70 %

LL= 33
PI= 12
PI= 0.73(LL-20), A-line
PI=0.73(33-20)=9.49
SC
(≥ 15% gravel)
Clayey sand with Highly
gravel
 Textural Classification
1. IS 1498 – 1970 System
2. U S Bureau of Soils and Chemistry System

IS 1498 – 1970 System

 Grain size distribution of soil is required
 Percentage of soil in each size group is determined
Ex:- Soil 10% Gravel + 52% Sand + 38% Silt & Clay
 U S Bureau of Soils and Chemistry System
 First find the percentages of SAND, SILT and Clay.
 Based on the RELATIVE percentages of sand, silt and clay a
POINT is located on the TRIANGULAR CHART which indicates
SOIL TYPE.
0
10 0
10
90
20
80
30
70
40 C lay
)
(%

Cl
60

ay
es

50

Si
Si z

ze
50
nd

s(
60
Sa

%)
S a nd y C lay Silty Cl ay 40
70
30
80 Clay -S an d C lay -S ilt
20
90
Silty Sa n d S andy Sil t 10
10 0 S a nd
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 0
Silt Siz es ( %)
Public Roads Administration Classification System
(AASHTO 1978 System)

 Based on both particle size composition and plasticity

characteristics

GROUP INDEX of the soil is determined in order to rate

the soil as a SUBGRADE MATERIAL for PAVEMENT
construction

 HIGHER the value of GROUP INDEX, POORER is the

QUALITY of the SOIL.
 Field Identification of Soils
Distinguish Gravel from Sand  Grain Size

Sand from Silt  Dispersion Test

Silt from Clay  Dispersion Test

 Shaking (Dilatancy) Test
 Strength Test
 Rolling (Toughness) Test
Organic Content and Color
Organic soils usually have a distinctive odour of decomposed organic matter,
which can be detected by heating.

Acid Test – use dilute HCL to check the presence of Calcium Carbonate
Shine Test – Highly Plastic soil is more Shine than Low Plastic soil