Motivation

Adapted from
Hitt, Black and Porter (2007)
ch. 12
What is Motivation?
Motivation
Set of forces
 Energize behavior
 Direct behavior

 Sustain behavior

 External and internal

forces
Sources of Motivation
INTERNAL EXTERNAL
(PUSH FORCES) (PULL FORCES)
Characteristics of Characteristics of Characteristics of
THE INDIVIDUAL THE JOB THE WORK SITUATION
(examples) (examples) (examples)
Needs Feedback Immediate Social
 For security  Amount Environment
 For self-esteem  Timing  Supervisor(s)
 For achievement  Workgroup members
 For power Work load  Subordinates
Attitudes
 About self Tasks Organizational actions
 About job  Rewards &
 Variety
 About supervisor compensation
 Scope
 Availability of training
 About organization
 Pressure for high levels
Goals Discretion of output
 Task completion  How job is performed
 Performance level
 Career advancement

Adapted from Exhibit 12.1: Key Variables that Influence Motivation

Motivation Theories
Content Theories
Focus Personal needs that
workers attempt to satisfy.
Features in the work
environment that satisfy a
worker’s needs.
Theories  Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
 Alderfer’s Needs Hierarchy
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory
Process Theories
 How different variables can
combine to influence the
amount of effort put forth
by employees.
 Equity Theory
 Expectancy Theory
 Goal Setting Theory
Adapted from Exhibit 12.2: Motivation Theories
Content Theories of Motivation
Internal factors
 Needs
 Motives
External factors
 Job
 Work situation
•Content Theories of Motivation
Need Hierarchy
Five needs arranged in a hierarchy of strength
and influence
 Physiological
 Security (safety)
 Social (belongingness)
 Esteem
 Self-actualization
 Satisfy most basic needs first
 Move to the next level of needs after preceding
needs is satisfied
Content Theories of Motivation
ERG Theory
Three classifications of needs (Alderfer)
Existence
Relatedness
Growth
Different levels of the needs can be active at the
same time
Person may stay at one level, if frustrated by trying
to attain the next higher level
 Highest-order
needs

Self-
actualization Growth
Esteem

Belongingness Relatedness

Safety
Most essential Existence
needs Physiological

Maslow’s Need Alderfer’s Needs

Hierarchy Categories Hierarchy Categories

Adapted from Exhibit 12.3: Maslow’s and Alderfer’s Needs Hierarchies Categories
Content Theories of Motivation
Two-Factor Theory
Motivators
Can increase job satisfaction
Factors related to doing the job (work itself,
responsibility, personal growth, sense of achievement,
recognition)
Hygiene factors
Can prevent dissatisfaction, but cannot increase
satisfaction
Factors extrinsic to or surrounding the job
(supervision, relations with co-workers, working
conditions, company policies and practices)
 Motivators: Hygiene Factors:
Factors directly Elements associated
related to doing with conditions
a job surrounding the job

Supervision
Recognition

Achievement Growth Compensation Benefits

Job

Nature
Responsibility of the Working Relations with
work conditions co-workers

Adapted from Exhibit 12.4: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Motivators and Hygiene Factors
 Higher performance

 From the state of being Motivators

Intrinsic factors
neither satisfied nor related to the doing
dissatisfied, motivators of the
job itself:
can impel an employee’s
motivation and Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
performance to higher
levels
 Hygiene factors must be
Hygiene-Factors
satisfied first, leading to Extrinsic factors
a state of being neither related to conditions
surrounding the job:
satisfied nor dissatisfied

Adapted from Exhibit 12.5: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Differential Effects of Hygiene Factors and Motivators
Adapted from Exhibit 12.6: Job Characteristics Model
 Core Job Characteristics
Core Job Definition Example
Characteristics
Skill variety The degree to which a job requires The aerospace engineer must be
a variety of different activities in able to create blueprints, calculate
carrying out the work, involving the tolerances, provide leadership to the
use of a number of different skills work group, and give presentations
and talents of the person. to upper management.
Task identity The degree to which a job requires The event manager handles all the
completion of a “whole” and plans for the annual executive
identifiable piece of work, that is, retreat, attends the retreat, and
doing a job from beginning to end receives information on its success
with a viable outcome. from the participants.
Task The degree to which a job has a The finance manager devises a new
significance substantial impact on the lives of benefits plan to improve health
other people, whether those people coverage for all employees.
are in the immediate organization
or in the world at large.

Adapted from Exhibit 12.7: Core Job Characteristics in Job Characteristics Model
 Core Job Characteristics
Core Job Definition Example
Characteristics
Autonomy The degree to which a job provides R&D scientists are linked via the
substantial freedom, independence, company intranet, allowing them to
and discretion to the individual in post their ideas, ask questions, and
scheduling the work and in propose solutions at any hour of the
determining the procedures to be day, whether at the office, at home,
used in carrying it out. or on the road.

Feedback The degree to which carrying out
from job the work activities required by the
job provides the individual with
direct and clear information about
the effectiveness of his or her
performance.
The lathe operator knows he is
cutting his pieces correctly, as very
few are rejected by the workers in the
next production area.

Source: Adapted from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980).

Adapted from Exhibit 12.7: Core Job Characteristics in Job Characteristics Model
Process Theories of Motivation
Deal with the way different variables combine to
influence the amount of effort people put forth
Equity theory
Expectancy theory
Goal-setting theory
Process Theories of Motivation
Equity Theory
Focuses on individuals’ comparisons of their own
circumstances to those of others
Inputs (age, experience, education, etc.)
Outcomes (salary, benefits, titles, perks, etc.)
Ratios of an individual’s input/outcome versus that
ratio of another person or people
Adapted from Exhibit 12.8: Equity Theory
Process Theories of Motivation
Expectancy Theory
Focuses on the thought processes people use
when faced with choosing among alternative
courses of action
Effort  Expectancy
Performance  Instrumentality
Outcome  Valence
 Outcome
(V: I do or do not
Effort Performance
value recognition
from my supervisor)

Expectancy Instrumentality

E P P O
(I believe high effort (I believe high performance
will lead to good will lead to recognition
performance) from my supervisor)

E = effort P = performance
O = outcome V = valence

Adapted from Exhibit 12.9: Components of Expectancy Theory

Process Theories of Motivation
Expectancy Theory
To influence employees’ motivation
Identify rewards that are valued
 Strengthen subordinates’ beliefs that their efforts will
lead to valued rewards
 Clarify subordinates’ understanding of exactly where
they should direct their efforts
 Make sure that the desired rewards under your
control are given directly following particular levels of
performance
Provide levels and amounts of rewards that are
consistent with a realistic level of expected rewards
Process Theories of Motivation
Goal-Setting Theory
Human action is directed by conscious goals and
intentions
More challenging (higher or harder) goals, if
accepted, result in higher levels of effort than easier
goals.
 Specific goals result in higher levels of effort than
vague goals.
Role of Reinforcements and
Consequences
Events that happen to an individual following a
particular behaviour
Positive consequence
Neutral consequence
Negative consequence
Magnitude of the consequence
Strengthening Behavior
Positive Reinforcement
Rewards that increase the likelihood of behaviour
being repeated in the future
Equitable
Efficient
Available (capable of being given)
Not exclusive
Visible
Reversible
Strengthening Behavior
Negative Reinforcement
Undesirable consequences
that increase the likelihood
of a behaviour being repeated
in the future need to be
removed
Weakening Behavior
Punishment and Extinction
Punishment
Undesirable consequences that are given following
behaviour in order to decrease the likelihood it will be
repeated
 Can have inadvertent effects of increasing other undesired
behaviour
Extinction
The absence of positive consequences for behaviour,
lessening the likelihood of that behaviour in the
future
Social Influences on Motivation
Influence of the immediate
workgroup
Individual is a member of the “in-
group”
Individual has strong desire to be part
of that group and to receive that
group’s approval
Influence of supervisors and
subordinates
Influence of organization’s culture