ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL CORD

AND REFLEXES
PREPARED BY HUGH POTTER, Ph.D
BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNION COUNTY COLLEGE

IMAGES USED WITH THE PERMISSION OF ADAM, INC.

ANTERIOR VIEW OF THE SPINAL CORD

CERVICAL CORD
(8 nerves)
The spinal cord begins at the base
of the medulla oblongata and
extends to about the 2nd lumbar
vertebra. The cord is divided into
four regions each of which has
branches called spinal nerves.

THORACIC CORD
(12 nerves)

LUMBAR CORD
(5 nerves)
SACRAL CORD
(5 nerves)

SAGITAL SECTION OF LOWER SPINE

The inferior, terminal portion of the
spinal cord is at the level of the 2nd
lumbar vertebra. Branches from
the lumbar region pass downward
from the cone-shaped tip (conus
medullaris) of the spinal cord
forming the cauda equina (horses
tail).
Cauda equina

SPINAL CORD MENINGES

The Meninges of the Spinal Cord

The Meninges are tough, moist membranes surrounding the spinal
cord.
1. Dura mater The outermost membrane surrounding the spinal
cord, it consists of a thin Meningeal layer.
2. Arachnoid layer a fibrous, delicate middle zone. Below this
layer is the subarachnoid space filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
3. Pia mater innermost of the meningeal layers. It is closely
adherent to the surface of the spinal cord.

SPINAL CORD CROSS SECTION

A - ventral root of spinal nerve
B - gray matter
C - white matter
D - dorsal root of spinal nerve
E - spinal nerve

D
E

C
A

Spinal Nerve
and its
Branches

CERVICAL PLEXUS
The cervical plexus is formed by
branches of cervical nerves C1 to
C4 arising from the cervical
region of the spinal cord. The
phrenic nerve which stimulates
the diaphragm to contract arises
from the cervical plexus

The brachial plexus is

formed from spinal nerves
C5, C6, C7, C8 and T1. It is
responsible for innervation
of the skin and muscles of
the entire upper limb and
all but two muscles of the
shoulder girdle.
An accident that pulls
the arm may damage the
brachial plexus. In
newborns, the brachial
plexus can be damaged
during birth if the delivery
requires pulling the arm.

BRACHIAL
PLEXUS

LUMBAR PLEXUS
Spinal nerves branching
from the lumbar region of
the cord form the lumbar
plexus. Branches of this
plexus stimulate muscles
of the back, hip and
thigh. The plexus also is
responsible for sensation
in the skin of the thighs,
the pubic area and the
external genitalia in
males and females.

LUMBOSACRAL SPINAL CORD

POSTERIOR VIEW
The area within the rectangle shows the
lower portion of the spinal cord. The
branches leaving the sacral region pass
through the sacral foramina forming
the sacral plexus.

SACRAL PLEXUS
Spinal nerves branching from
the lumbar (L4 and L5) and
sacral (S1, S2, S3 and S4)
region of the cord form the
sacral plexus.
Nerves branching from
this plexus innervate the limb
and pelvic area. Because the
lumbar and sacral plexuses
are interconnected, they are
sometimes referred to as the
lumbosacral plexus.

SCIATIC NERVE
The sciatic nerve (astrerisk) is formed
from spinal nerves arising from the
lumbar (L4 and L5) and sacral (S1, S2
and S3) regions of the spinal cord. It
passes into the thigh and lower leg
supplying innervation of sensation and
movement for the entire lower limb.
When giving a gluteal intramuscular
injection, it is important to inject into
the gluteus medius muscle to avoid
damage to this large nerve.

The Components of the Reflex Arc

1. The sensory neurons enter the dorsal part of the spinal
cord cell via the dorsal root of the spinal nerve. The cell
bodies of these sensory neurons are located in a dorsal-root
ganglion that lies just outside the spinal cord near its
dorsal side.
2. The axons of the sensory neurons then enter the spinal
cord and synapse with interneurons within the gray matter
of the spinal cord.
3. The interneurons in turn synapse with motor neurons, the
axons of which exit the cord ventrally via the ventral root,
and conduct information to the muscles

MONOSYNAPTIC REFLEX
The patellar reflex is produced by
striking the patellar tendon (arrow) with
the reflex hammer. A stretch receptor in
the tendon will send afferent impulses to
the spinal cord. The incoming messages
will synapse on motor neurons in the
gray matter. These messages will travel
out to the quadriceps muscle group
(asterisk) producing the characteristic
knee jerk. This type of reflex is called
monosynaptic because the sensory
neuron synapses directly on a motor
neuron in the gray matter of the spinal
cord.

Major Spinal Nerve Tracts

Motor tracts Red
Sensory tracts - Blue

Descending Nerve Tracts

There are two major groups of descending tracts from the brain: the
corticospinal, or pyramidal tracts, and the extrapyramidal tracts.
The pyramidal tracts descend directly without synaptic interruption,
from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord.

Pyramidal Tracts
Corticobulbar tract
Corticospinal tracts

Extra-Pyramidal tracts
Vestibulospinal tracts
Tectospinal tracts

Descending tracts (Motor)

Pyramidal Tracts Originate from the pyramidal cells of the
primary motor cortex. These nerve tracts decussate.
Corticobulbar tract
1. Neurons originate in primary motor cortex of the cerebrum.
2. Destination is motor nuclei of cranial nerves in the brain stem.
3. Provide conscious control over skeletal muscles of the eye, jaw and
face, as well as some muscles of the neck and throat.
Corticospinal tracts
1. Neurons originate in primary motor cortex of the cerebrum.
2. Provide voluntary motor control of skeletal muscles throughout
the body.
3. Destination of the tracts is the motor neurons of the ventral horns
of gray matter in the spinal cord.

Extra-Pyramidal tracts Originate from centers in the cerebrum,

diencephalon and brain stem not from pyramidal cells (extrapyramidal).
Vestibulospinal tracts do not decussate
1. Neurons respond to information from the vestibulocochlear nerve
about the position and movements of the head.
2. The tract carries motor commands that alter muscle tone and
position the head, neck and limbs to maintain balance and
posture.
Tectospinal tracts Cross over in the brain stem
1. Neurons originate in the superior and inferior colliculi in the
tectum of the midbrain. The colliculi receive visual (superior)
and auditory (inferior) sensations.
2. Neurons of these tracts direct reflexive changes in the position of
the head, neck and upper limbs in response to bright lights,
sudden movements or loud noises.

Ascending Nerve Tracts

The ascending tracts convey sensory information from
cutaneous receptors, proprioceptors (muscle and joint senses),
and visceral receptors. Most of the sensory information that
originates in the right side of the body crosses over (decusses)
and eventually reach the region on the left side of the brain,
which analyses this information. Similarly, the information
arising in the left side of the body is ultimately analysed by the
right side of the brain. This decussation occurs in the medulla
oblongata for sensory modalities, or in the spinal cord for other
modalities of sensation.

Ascending Tracts
Posterior Column Pathway
Spinothalamic Pathway
Spinocerebellar Pathway

Ascending Tracts Three major sensory pathways

Posterior Column Pathway Cross in the medulla oblongata
Carries sensations of fine touch, pressure and proprioception
from peripheral receptors to the sensory cortex of the cerebral
hemispheres via the thalamus.
Spinothalamic Pathway Cross in the spinal cord
Carries messages of crude touch, pressure, pain and temperature
from peripheral receptors to the sensory cortex of the cerebral
hemispheres via the thalamus.
Spinocerebellar Pathway
1. Sensory neurons arise in muscle spindles, stretch receptors in
tendons and joint capsules. The overall sensory information is
proprioception.
2. The destination of these messages is the cerebellum, specifically
the cerebellar cortex.

Autonomic Nervous System

The nervous system is divided into the Somatic Nervous System
which controls organs under voluntary control (mainly muscles)
and the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) which regulates
individual organ function and homeostasis, and for the most part
is not subject to voluntary control. It is also known as the visceral
or automatic system.
The ANS is predominantly an efferent (motor) system
transmitting impulses from the Central Nervous System (CNS) to
peripheral organ systems. Its effects include:
1. control of heart rate and force of heart contraction
2. constriction and dilation of blood vessels
3. contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle in various organs
4. visual accommodation and pupillary size
5. the secretions from exocrine and endocrine glands.

The Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Systems

The ANS is divided into two separate divisions called the
Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Systems, on the basis of
anatomical and functional differences.
Both of these systems consist of myelinated preganglionic
fibers which make synaptic connections with unmyelinated
postganglionic fibers, and it is these which then innervate the
effector organ. These synapses usually occur in clusters called
ganglia.
Most organs are innervated by fibers from both divisions of
the ANS, and the influence is usually opposing. For example, the
vagus nerve (PNS) slows the heart, whilst the sympathetic nerves
increase its rate and strength of contraction. In general, the
responses of the parasympathetic system are characterized as Rest
and Digest and those of the Sympathetic are called Fight or
Flight

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Responses

Structure

Sympathetic Stimulation

Parasympathetic
Stimulation

Iris (eye
muscle)

Pupil dilation

Pupil constriction

Salivary
Glands

Saliva production reduced

Saliva production
increased

Heart

Heart rate and force

increased

Heart rate and force

decreased

Lung

Bronchial muscle relaxed

Bronchial muscle
contracted

Stomach

Peristalsis reduced

Gastric juice secreted;

motility increased

Kidney

Decreased urine secretion

Bladder

Wall relaxed
Sphincter closed

Increased urine secretion

Wall contracted
Sphincter relaxed

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Parasympathetic nerve messages arise from the cell
bodies of the motor nuclei in the brain stem and from the
second, third and fourth sacral segments of the spinal cord. For
this reason, the parasympathetic is also referred to as CranioSacral.
Preganglionic fibers run almost to the organ which is
innervated, and synapse in ganglia close to or within that organ,
giving rise to postganglionic fibers which then innervate the
relevant tissue.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The cell bodies of the sympathetic preganglionic fibres
are in the lateral horns of spinal segments T1 to L2. For this
reason, the sympathetic nervous system is also called
Thoraco-Lumbar.
The preganglionic fibres travel a short distance in the
mixed spinal nerve, and then branch off as white rami
(myelinated) to enter the sympathetic ganglia.
The sympathetic ganglia are mainly arranged in two
chains which lie near the vertebral bodies and extend from
the cervical to the sacral region. They are called the
sympathetic ganglionic chains.

SYMPATHETIC CHAIN OF GANGLIA

Running parallel on either side of
the vertebral column is a chain of
interconnected ganglia (arrow)
that serve as relay stations for
efferent sympathetic impulses
that travel out to peripheral
regions.

AUTONOMIC REFLEX
The PUPILLARY REFLEX

The pupillary reflex involves a change in the diameter of the

pupil of the eye due to the interaction of the two branches of
the autonomic nervous system. This response is usually
elicited by shining a light into the eye stimulating the optic
nerve (arrow). The autonomic nerves pass through cranial
nerve III, the oculomotor nerve. The SNS will produce
dilation of the pupil. The PNS will constrict the pupil.