UNIT-V

Broadcast and
Services

Syllabus
Broadcast: DBS-Orbital spacing's-power
ratings-frequency
and
polarizationtransponder
capacity-bit
rate-MPEGForward error correction. ODU-IDU-downlink
analysis-uplink-satellite mobile services:
VSAT-GPS

Broadcast services
Satellites provide broadcast transmissions

in the fullest sense of the word, because

antenna footprints can be made to cover
large areas of the earth. The idea of using
satellites to provide direct transmissions
into the home has been around for many
years, and the services provided are known
generally as direct broadcast satellite (DBS)
services.
Broadcast
services
include
audio,
television, and Internet services.

Orbital spacing
It is known that the orbital spacing is 9 for

the high power satellites, so adjacent

satellite interference is considered
nonexistent.

Orbital spacing(2)
It should be noted that although the DBS

services are spaced by 9, clusters of

satellites occupy
The nominal orbital positions. For example,
the following satellites are located at
119W longitude: EchoStar VI, launched on
July 14, 2000;EchoStar IV, launched on May
8,
1998;
EchoStar
II,
launched
September10, 1996; and EchoStar I,
launched on December 28,1995

Power Rating and Number

of Transponders
From Table 1.4 it will be seen that satellites primarily

intended for DBS have a higher [EIRP] than for the other
categories, being in the range 51 to 60 dBW.
At a Regional Administrative Radio Council (RARC)
meeting in 1983, the value established for DBS was 57
dBW (Mead,2000).
Transponders are rated by the power output of their highpower amplifiers.
Typically, a satellite may carry 32 transponders. If all 32
are in use, each will operate at the lower power rating of
120 W.
By doubling up the high-power amplifiers, the number of
transponders is reduced by half to 16, but each
transponder operates at the higher power rating of 240 W.

US-DBS systems

Frequencies and
Polarization
The frequencies for direct broadcast satellites vary

from region to region throughout the world, although

these are generally in the Ku band. Table 1.4 shows
that for high-power satellites, the primary use of
which is for DBS, the uplink frequency range is
17.3to 17.8 GHz, and the downlink range is 12.2 to
12.7 GHz.
The medium power satellites listed in Table 1.4 also
operate in the Ku band at 14 to 14.5 GHz uplink and
11.7 to 12.2 GHz downlink.
The primary use of these satellites, however, is for
point-to-point
applications,
with
an
allowed
additional use in the DBS service.

Frequencies and
Polarization(2)
The available bandwidth (uplink and downlink) is seen to

be 500MHz. A total number of 32 transponder channels,

each of bandwidth 24 MHz, can be accommodated. The
bandwidth is sometimes specified as 27 MHz, but this
includes a 3-MHz guard band allowance.
Therefore, when calculating bit-rate capacity, the 24 MHz
value is used.
The total of 32 transponders requires the use of both
righthand
circular polarization (RHCP) and left-hand circular
polarization(LHCP) in order to permit frequency reuse,
and guard bands are inserted between channels of a
given polarization

Transponder capacity
The 24-MHz bandwidth of a transponder is capable of

carrying one analog television channel. To be

commercially viable, DBS television also known as directto-home (DTH) television requires many more channels,
and this requires a move from analog to digital television.
Digitizing the audio and video components of a television
program allows signal compression to be applied, which
greatly reduces the bandwidth required.
The signal compression used in DBS is a highly complex
process, and only a brief overview will be given here of
the process. Before
doing this, an estimate of the bit rate that can be carried
in a 24-MHz transponder will be made.
The symbol rate that can be transmitted in a given
bandwidth is Rsym=Bif/1+

BIT RATES FOR DIGITAL TELEVISION

The bit rate for digital television depends

very much on the picture format. One way

of estimating the uncompressed bit rate is
to multiply the number of pixels in a frame
by the number of frames per second, and
multiply this by the number of bits used to
encode each pixel.
The number of bits per pixel depends on
the color depth per pixel, for example 16
bits per pixel gives a color depth of 216
65536 colors.

BIT RATES FOR DIGITAL TELEVISION(2)

Using the HDTV format having a pixel count per

frame of 1920 1080 and a refresh rate of 30

frames per second as shown in Table 16.1, the
estimated bit rate is 995 Mbps.
(A somewhat different estimate is sometimes
used, which allows for 8 bits for each of the three
primary colors, and this would result in a bit rate of
approximately 1.49 Gbps for this version of HDTV).
From Table 16.1 it is seen that the uncompressed
bit rate ranges from 118 Mb/s for standard
definition television at the lowest pixel resolution to
995 Mb/s for high definition TV at the highest
resolution.

BIT RATES FOR DIGITAL

TELEVISION(3)
A single DBS transponder has to carry somewhere

between four and eight TV programs to be

commercially viable (Mead, 2000). The programs may
originate from a variety of sources, for example film,
analog TV, and videocassette. Before transmission,
these must all be converted to digital, compressed,
and then time-division multiplexed (TDM).
This TDM baseband signal is applied as QPSK
modulation to the uplink carrier reaching a given
transponder.
The compressed bit rate, and hence the number of
channels that are carried, depends on the type of
program material.

BIT RATES FOR DIGITAL

TELEVISION(3)
Typical values for SDTV are in the range of

4 Mb/s for a movie channel, 5 Mb/s for a

variety channel, and 6 Mb/s for a sports
channel (from MPEG and DSS Technical
Notes
(v0.3)
by
C.
Fogg,
1995).
Compression is carried out to Moving
Pictures Expert Group (MPEG) standards

MPEG compression standard

MPEG is a group within the International

Standards
Organization
and
the
International Electrochemical Commission
(ISO/IEC) that undertook the job of defining
standards for the transmission and storage
of moving pictures and sound.
In DBS systems, MPEG-2 is used for video
compression. As a first or preprocessing
step, the analog outputs from the red (R),
green (G), and blue (B) color cameras are
converted to a luminance component (Y)
and two chrominance components (Cr) and
(Cb).

MPEG-2 Encoder paths

MPEG-2(2)
Sampling is usually indicated by the ratios Y:U:V

where Y represents the luminance (or luma)

sampling rate, U the Cb sampling rate, and V the
Cr sampling rate.
The values for YUV are normalized to a value of 4
for Y, and ratios commonly encountered with
digital TV are 4:4:4, 4:2:2 and 4:2:0.
4:4:4 means that the sampling rates of Y,
Cb, and Cr are equal. Each pixel would get
three digital words, one for each of the
component signals. If the words are 8-bits then
each pixel would be encoded in 3 bytes.

MPEG-2(3)
4:2:2 means that the Cb and Cr signals are

sampled at half the rate of the Y signal

component. Every two pixels would have two bytes
for the Y signal, one byte for the Cb signal and one
byte for the Cr signal, resulting in 4 bytes for the 2pixel block.
4:2:0 means that Cb and Cr are sampled at
half the Y sampling rate,but they are sampled
only on alternate scan lines. Thus vertical as well as
horizontal resolution is reduced by half. A2 2 pixel
block would have 6 bytes, 4 bytes for Y, 1 byte for
Cb and 1 byte for Cr.
Following the digitizer, difference signals are formed,
and the discrete cosine transform (DCT) block
converts these to a spatial frequencydomain.

MPEG-2(4)
The familiar Fourier transform transforms a time signal

g(t)
to a frequency domain representation G(f ), allowing the
signal to be filtered in the frequency domain.
Compression
is also achieved through motion
estimation. Frames inMPEG-2 are designated I, P, and B
frames, and motion prediction is achieved by comparing
certain frames with other frames.
The I frame is an independent frame, meaning that it
can be reconstructed without reference to any other
frames.
A P (for previous) frame is compared with the previous I
frame, and only those parts which differ as a result of
movement need to be encoded.
A B (for bidirectional) frame is compared with the
previous Iaor P frame and with the next P frame.

MPEG-2(5)
The

whole encoding process relies on

digital decision-making circuitry and is
computationally intensive and expensive.
The decoding process is much simpler
because the rules for decoding are part of
the syntax of the bit stream. Decoding is
carried out in the integrated receiver
decoder (IRD) unit.

MPEG-1
In DBS systems, MPEG-1 is used for audio compression,

and as discussedearlier, MPEG-2 is used for video

compression. Both of these
MPEG standards cover audio and video, but MPEG-1 video
is not designed for DBS transmissions.
MPEG-1 audio supports mono and two channel stereo
only, which is considered adequate for DBS systems
currently in use.
MPEG-2 audio supports multichannel audio in addition to
mono and stereo.
It is fully compatible with MPEG-1 audio, so the IRDs,
which carry MPEG-2 decoders, will have little trouble in
being upgraded to work with DBS systems transmitting
multichannel audio.

MPEG-1(2)
The need for audio compression can be seen by

considering the bit rate required for high-quality

audio. The bit rate is equal to the number of
samples per second (the sampling frequency fs)
multiplied by the number of bits per sample
R =fsXn
In MPEG-1, two processes take place in parallel, as
illustrated in Fig. 16.4. The filter bank divides the
spectrum of the incoming signal into sub bands. In
parallel with this the spectrum is analyzed to permit
identification of the masking levels. The masking
information is passed to the quantizer, which then
quantizes the sub bands according to the noise floor.
b

MPEG-1(3)

MPEG-4
MPEG-4 (part 10) was developed jointly by the

Video Coding Experts Group (VCEG) of the

International Telecommunication Union (ITU),
Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T)
which uses the designation H.264, and the MPEG of
the ISO/IEC.
As noted in Sullivanet al. (2004), this version of
MPEG is known by at least six differentnames
(H.264, H.26L, ISO/IEC 14496-10, JVT, MPEG-4 AVC,
and MPEG-4 Part 10) and the abbreviation AVC is
commonly used to denote advanced video coding.
Following the usage in Sullivan et al., it will
bedenoted here by H.264/AVC.

MPEG-4(2)
Areas of application include video telephony,

video storage and retrieval(DVD and hard

disk), digital video broadcast, and others.
In general terms, MPEG-4 provides many
features not present with other compression
schemes, such as interactivity for viewers,
where objects within a scene can be
manipulated, but from the point of view of
satellite television, the major advantage is
the reduction in bit rate offered.

Forward Error Correction

(FEC)
Because of the highly compressed nature of the

DBS signal, there is little redundancy in the

information being transmitted, and bit errors affect
the signal much more severely than they would in a
non compressed bit stream.
As a result, FEC is a must. Concatenated coding is
used . The outer code is a Reed-Solomon code that
corrects for block errors, and the inner code is a
convolution code that corrects for random errors.
The inner decoder utilizes the Viterbi decoding
algorithm.
These FEC bits, of course, add overhead to the bit
stream.

Forward Error Correction

(FEC)(2)
Typically for a 240-W transponder (see Sec.

16.3), the bit capacity of 40 Mb/s may have a

payload of 30 Mb/s and coding overheads of 10
Mb/s.
The lower-power 120-W transponders require
higher coding overheads to make up for the
reduction in power and have a payload of 23
Mb/s and coding overheads of 17 Mb/s.
More exact figures are given in Mead (2000) for
DirecTV, where the overall code rates are given
as 0.5896 for the 120-W transponder and 0.758
for the 240-W transponder.

The Home Receiver Outdoor Unit (ODU)

The home receiver consists of two unitsan

outdoor unit and an indoor unit. Commercial

brochures refer to the complete receiver as an
IRD.
The downlink signal, covering the frequency
range 12.2 to 12.7 GHz, is focused by the
antenna into the receive horn. The horn feeds
into a polarizer that can be switched to pass
either left-hand circular or right-hand circular
polarized signals.
The low-noise block that follows the polarizer
contains a low-noise amplifier(LNA) and a down
converter.

The Home Receiver Outdoor

Unit (ODU)(2)
The size of the antenna is a compromise among

many factors but typically is around 18 in. (46

cm) in diameter.
A small antenna is desirable for a number of
reasons. Small antennas are less intrusive
visually and also are less subject to wind loading.
In manufacture, it is easier to control surface
irregularities, which can cause a reduction in gain
by scattering the signal energy.
The reduction can be expressed as a function of
the root-meansquare(rms) deviation of the
surface, referred to an ideal parabolic surface.

The Home Receiver Outdoor

Unit (ODU)(3)

The Home Receiver Indoor Unit (IDU)

Downlink Analysis
The main factor governing performance of

a DBS system will be the[Eb/N0] of the

downlink.
Illustrated in Example 16.1 that follows.
The effects of rain can be calculated using
the procedure.

Uplink
Ground stations that provide the uplink signals to the

satellites in a DBS system are highly complex systems in

themselves, utilizing a wide range of receiving, recording,
encoding, and transmission equipment.
Signals will originate from many sources. Some will be
analog TV received from satellite broadcasts. Others will
originate in a studio, others from video cassette recordings,
and some will be brought in on cable or optical fiber. Data
signals and audio broadcast material also may be included.
All of these must be converted to a uniform digital format,
compressed, and time division multiplexed. Necessary
service additions which must be part of the multiplexed
stream are the program guide and conditional access.
FEC is added to the bit stream, which is then used to QPSK
modulate the carrier for a given transponder. The whole
process, of course, is duplicated for each transponder carrier.

VSAT

VSAT or Very Small Aperture Terminals are

small, software-driven earth stations.

It is used for the reliable transmission of data,
video, or voice via satellite.
It requires no staff or additional technology to
operate it.
It simply plugs into existing terminal
equipment.

Short for Small Aperture Terminal, an earthbound station used in satellite

communications of data, voice and video signals, excluding broadcast
television.
A VSAT should consists of two parts -- >

VSAT

Transceiver

Device such as
Personal
Computer
(PC)

A VSAT consists of two parts, a transceiver

that is placed outdoors in direct line of

sight to the satellite and a device that is
placed indoors to interface the transceiver
with the end user's communications
device, such as a PC .
The transceiver receives or sends a signal
to a satellite transponder in the sky.
The satellite sends and receives signals
from a ground station computer that acts
as a hub for the system.

Working of HUB station

Each end user is interconnected with the

hub station via the satellite, forming a

star topology.
The hub controls the entire operation of the
network .
For one end user to communicate with
another, each transmission has to first go to
the hub station that then retransmits it via
the satellite to the other end user's VSAT.
VSAT can handle up to 56 Kbps.

Usage of VSAT
The first commercial VSAT were C band (6

GHz) receive-only systems by Equatorial

Communications.
VSAT are used by car dealerships affiliated
with manufacturers such as Ford and
General Motors
They are used for transmitting and receiving
sales figures and orders, as well as for
receiving internal communications, service
bulletins, and interactive distance learning
courses from manufacturers. The Ford Star
network, used by Ford and its local dealers,

Configurations of VSAT
A star topology, using a central uplink site, such

as a network operations center (NOC), to

transport data back and forth to each VSAT
terminal via satellite.
A mesh topology, where each VSAT terminal
relays data via satellite to another terminal by
acting as a hub, minimizing the need for a
centralized uplink site.
A combination of both star and mesh
topologies.
These
configurations are utilized to minimize the
overall cost of the network, and to alleviate the

VSAT customers

Supermarket Shops.
Chemist Shops.
Garages / vehicle sales / petrol stations / motor spares.
Hotel chains.
Insurance offices.
Car rental offices.
Airlines, travel agents.
Financial institutions - ATM machines.
Manufacturers - sales offices, service divisions, plants.
Job centers.
Customs and tax offices / border passport control checkpoints.
Data file and software distributors.
Pipeline monitoring, oil rigs.
Rural telephony, data, videophone.
Schools.
Environmental monitoring.

VSAT Site Installation

The antenna needs to be mounted where it can

'see' the satellite and where it is safe from

unauthorised access.
Ground Mount

This involves a tube lowered into a

hole which is then filled in with concrete. The
pole should be accurately vertical so that when
you swing the dish around to find the satellite
the elevation angle stays the same all the time.
The indoor data processing unit (DPU)

The indoor data processing unit (DPU)

should be located in a dry, cool and clean place.

Safety

Installing a dish is normally

dangerous. Take care not to fall down
and not to drop tools on others below.
Be careful with ladders - always tie off
the top to some secure point. A small
electric shock may make you fall off a
ladder so be extra careful.
TIPS : ---If you are a beginner,
practice the complete installation at ground
level before moving everything to the roof.
Accuracy
1/12/16
The dish pointing needs to be

WHAT IS GPS?
GPS means

A space-basedsatellite navigationsystem
provideslocationand time information in all
weather.
Maintained by theUnited Statesgovernment
and is freely accessible by anyone with aGPS
receiver.

GPS ELEMENTS.
Three segments
1. Space segment.

Space
2. Control segment. Segment

Control
Segment

3. User segment.

User
Segment

SPACE SEGMENT
GPS satellites fly in circular orbits at an altitude of 20,200 km

and with a
period of 12 hours.
Powered by solar cells.
The satellites continuously orient themselves to point their solar

panels toward the sun and their antenna toward the earth.

Orbital planes are centered on the Earth.

Orbits are designed so that, at least, six satellites are always

within line of sight from any location on the planet.

CONTROL SEGMENT
The CS consists of 3 entities:
Master Control System
Monitor Stations
Ground Antennas

MASTER CONTROL STATION

The master control station, located at Falcon Air Force

Base in Colorado Springs,

Responsible for overall management of the remote

monitoring and transmission sites.

Check-up is performed twice a day, by each of 6

stations, as the satellites complete their journeys

around the earth.
Can reposition satellites to maintain an optimal GPS

constellation.

MONITOR STATIONS
Checks the exact altitude,
position, speed, and overall
health of the orbiting satellites.
The control segment ensures
that the GPS satellite orbits and
clocks remain within acceptable
limits.
A station can track up to 11
satellites at a time.
This "check-up" is performed
twice a day, by each station.

Falcon Air Force Base in

Colorado,
Cape Canaveral,
Florida,
Hawaii,
Ascension Island in the
Atlantic Ocean,
Diego Garcia Atoll in the
Indian Ocean,
Kwajalein Island in the
South Pacific Ocean.

GROUND ANTENNAS
Ground antennas monitor and track the

satellites from horizon to horizon.

They also transmit correction information to

individual satellites.
Communicate with the GPS satellites for

command and control purposes.

USER SEGMENT.
GPS receivers are generally composed of

1. an antenna( tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites),

2. receiver-processors, and
3. highly-stable clock( commonly a crystal oscillator).
They can also include a display for showing location and speed

information to the user.

A receiver is often described by its number of channels ( this signifies

how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously).

As of recent, receivers usually have between twelve and twenty

channels.

WORKING PRINCIPLE
Geometric Principle:
You can find ones location if you know its
distance from other, already-known locations.

Things which need to be determined:

Current Locations of GPS Satellites.
The Distance Between Receivers Position and the GPS

Satellites.

LIMITATIONS
GPS can provide worldwide, three-dimensional

positions, 24 hours a day, in any type of weather.

But, There must be a relatively clear "line of sight"

between the GPS antenna and four or more satellites.

Hence it becomes too difficult to ensure reliable

positioning. These difficulties are particularly prevalent

in urban areas.
The GPS signal may bounce off nearby objects causing

another problem called multi path interference.

APPLICATIONS
Surveying: Surveyors use absolute locations

to make maps and determine property

boundaries.

Telematics: GPS technology integrated with

computers and mobile communications

technology inautomotive navigation systems.

VEHICLE TRACKING.

REFERENCES
Satellite communication by Dennis Roddy-

4th edition
http://www.slideshare.net/jawadali19252/gp
s-ppts
http://www.slideshare.net/surojitenercon/vs
at-