Chapter 4 : Reproduction

1. Types of
reproduction :
a) Sexual reproduction
b) Asexual
reproduction

2. Sexual
Reproduction
Involves 2 parents of
different sexes
Fusion of sex cells. A
male gamete
fertilises a female

3. External
fertilisation : outside
the female body
Eg: Frog, fish ..
4. Internal fertilisation
: inside the female
body

5. Asexual Reproduction
Involves only one
parent.
6. Five types of asexual :
a)Budding
b)Binary fission
c)Spore formation
d)Regeneration

a) Budding

i- forming a bud at the side of

organism body.
- A bud starts off as a swelling, then
it develops and breaks off as a new
organism

b)Binary Fission
The division of a single parental cell
into two daughter cells.

Spore formation

c) Spore
formation

Process of producing
spores in the
sporangium of moss and
ferns
When spore land in a
moist place, they grow

Regeneration

Regeneratio
n of planaria

Regeneratio
n of starfish

d) Regeneration
The Ability of the
fragment of some
organisms to
grow into new
individual.

Vegetative Reproduction

Bryopyllum

Stem cutting
muscari

e) Vegetative
Reproduction
Occurs when part of
existing plant becomes a
new plant.
This part is known as the
vegetative structure.
Examples : Bryophyllum

6. Difference

Sexual

Asexual

1. Involves 2 organism
1 male, 1 female

1. Involves 1 organism
only

2. Involves sex cells or

gametes
(sperm, ovum)

2. Does not involve sex

cell

3. Has Fertilisation

3. No fertilisation

4. Has variation

4. No variation

7. Male Reproductive System

9. Sperm
Male sex cell produced by
testis
Smallest cell in the body
Consist of head, neck, middle
piece and tail
Head contain nucleus
Nucleus consist of of genetic
material to be transferred to
the children.

9. Changes during puberty

Boys reach puberty at 1214 y.o
Hair growing on the face and
the other parts like armpits
and pubic region
Pimples growing on the face
Deep voice
Taller and bigger

10. Female
Reproductive System

11. Ovum

Female sex gamete is

called ovum
Spherical in shape with
diameter about 0.1 mm
Largest cell in the human
Nucleus contains genetic
material
Not able to move by itself

12. Changes during

puberty

Girls reach puberty at 10-12

y.o

Hair growing at the

parts like armpits and
pubic region
Pimples growing on the

13. Comparing a sperm and

Characteristi Sperm
Ovum
an
ovum
c
Size

0.01-0.05 mm

0.12mm

Place of
production

Testis

Ovary

Mobility

Able to move
by itself

Unable to
move by itself

Number
produced

Millions in a
day

One released
every 28 days

Lifespan

Up to 72 hours Up to 24 hours

14. Menstrual Cycle

Every 28 days
In girls who have
reached puberty
Menstruation the
shedding of uterus wall
from vagina when ovum
is not fertilised by a

 Contents of menstruation :
i) Blood
ii)
dead ovum
iii) Lining of uterus wall
The volume of blood in
females body not
decrease, because new
blood cells will be
produced to replenish

a)Menstruation phase (day

1-5)
- blood & uterus wall
flow out
of vagina
b)Repair phase (day 6- 11)
- uterus wall become
thicker &

c)Fertile phase (day

12-16)
- ovulation occurs
- day 14 ovary
release
ovum
- uterus wall and

d) Premenstrual phase (day

17-28)
- the uterus wall
prepared for
implantation if
fertilisation is
successful.
- if fertilisation is not
successful,

Women stop
menstruating at 50
y.o-menopause
It is important to
maintain personal
hygiene to avoid
infection by

15.Fertilisation and
Pregnancy

Copulation : sperms transferred

to vagina.
Vagina
cervix
uterus
oviduct
Ovulation : mature ovum is
released.
Ovum: fallopian tube
uterus
Only 1 is able to fuse with the

Ovulation
fertilisation
Implantation

17.Development of an embryo into a foetus

until birth

 After 9 month, foetus fully formed

and ready to born
Foetus rotate its body until the
head points towards the cervix
which dilate.
Muscular wall of uterus contracts
Amnion bursts and amniotic fluid
is released.
The foetus is pushed out through
vagina
The baby is born and umbilical

.Importance of Prenatal
Pregnant woman
:
Care

must eat more because they

need more nutrient for the
foetus to grow
should have enough sleep
should have regular checkups to monitor the
development of the foetus
should not smoke, take

 Cigarette smoke
contains carbon
monoxide (CO)
CO +Oxygen
Carboxyhaemoglobin
Less oxygen being
transported to the
foetus

Abnormal brain de

Pregnant women who

smoke may have :
Smaller babies
Babies more likely to be
born dead
Babies who are mentally
and physically retarded
An abortion or babies born
before full term

 Alcohol
Fetal
Alcohol Syndrome :
- slow down the
development of foetus
- damage its brain, nervous
system and heart
Drugs / medicine can
cause deformities in the
foetus

19.Importance of Research In
Human Reproduction

Reproduction : To produce
gametes
Issues : sterility and birth
control
Sterility :Inability to
produce offspring or
children

photo

 To overcome sterility :
a.Drug treatment
- hormone imbalance and inability to
produce strong and healthy gametes
- treated with drugs containing hormones
- stimulate the testes and ovaries to
produce ova and sperms
- Men who are impotent can be treated
with drugs
b.Surgery
- blockages or growth inside the
fallopian tube and in uterus
- removed by surgery using laparoscope

c.In vitro method

- in vitro fertisation (IVF)
- in vitro : outside the body, in
artificial
environment (glass dish)
blocked oviducts
method :
i) ovum removed from the
women
ii) fertilised by husbands
sperms in a
glass dish

Birth Control or
1.Preventing
ovulation
Contraception
- contraceptive pills contain
hormones
- every day for 21 days after
menstruation
2.Preventing fertilisation
a) - natural method /rhythm
method
- avoid copulation during fertile
period
b) - using condom

3. Preventing implantation
of fertilised ovum
- IUCD intrauterine
contraceptive device
- made of plastic or
copper wire of various
sizes and shapes
- inserted into uterus
- from months to years

 Permanent contraceptive methods

sterilisation
Involves the removal of ones
reproductive capability and requires
surgery.
Irreversible
i) Vasectomy
- male sterilisation
- carried out to cut off a section
from
each sperm and two ends are
then tied

ii)

Ligation
- female sterilisation
- carried out to
remove the
middle part of both
the
oviducts
- the open ends are
then tied

 When couples cannot

have children, they
tend to be very tense
and can cause social
problem
Family planning can
ensure the health of the
mother and child.

 Lessen the financial

burden of the parents.
Have more time to look
after, love and guide
their children to
become useful citizen
and reduce social
problems.

Sexual Reproductive
System of Flowering
Plants
1-Flower :
form the reproductive
system of plants
Produce male and

2- Parts Of Flower and Its Functions

3- Stamen
Male reproductive parts of
flower
Most flowers have 3, 4 or 5
stamens
Consist of filament and
anther
Anther produces pollen
grains

Pollen Grains

4- Pistil
Female reproductive part
Most flowers have only one pistil
Made up of the stigma, style and
ovary
Within the ovary are ovules
which contain the female gamete
The middle part of pistil is the
style
At the tip of style is the stigma
Stigma traps the pollen grains on

5- Pollination
The process of transferring ripe
pollen from anther to the stigma is
called pollination
When the anther is mature, it bursts
open
Its releases the pollen grains.
Carried by the pollinating agents to
the stigma
Two types :
- Self pollination
- Cross pollination

6- Self Pollination
When the pollen from the anther of
a flower is transferred to the stigma
of the same flower or stigma of
another flower on the same plant.
7-Cross pollination
Transfer of pollen from anther of a
flower to the stigma of another
flower on different plant of a same
spesies

8- Comparison between self

pollination and cross
-pollination

8- Comparison between self

pollination and cross
-pollination

9-Pollinating Agents
Are needed to transfer
the pollen grains
Pollinating agent :
1) Wind
2) Insects
3) Animals
4) Water

1)Wind :
- for most monocot plants :
maize, grass and paddy
2) Insects :
- like bees and butterfly
- when the insect lands on
the
flower to suck nectar for
food ,

When the insect land on

flower to collect food,
the pollen may drop off
and stick on the
stigma of that flower.
- Insect-pollinated
flowers produce small
amounts of pollen.
-

Insect
-pollinated

Big and
bright
Produce
nectar and
scented

Characteri
stic of
flower
Size and
colour

Wind
-pollinated

Nectar and
scent

No nectar
and no
scented

Small and
dull

Enclosed inside Position of

the flower
filament and
anther

Hang outside
the flower

Short and
sticky

Long and
hang outside

Style and
stigma

3) Animals
- Like birds and bats, pollinate
flowers when they suck nectar
from the flowers.
- Such flowers are usually big,
colourful, scented and produce
rough and sticky pollen.
- The pollen sticks to the beak or
body of animals.
- When a bird sucks out nectar
with its long and pointed beak,

4) Water
- Pollinating agent for water
plants like the Elodea and
Hydrilla.
- The flower floats on the
water surface.
- The water carries the
pollen from the anther to
the stigma.

Advantages of cross
pollination
New varieties of plants
Healthier plants which can
adapt better to changes
in the environment
Healthier seeds
New plants that are more
resistant to pests and

Cross Pollination in
agriculture
Agricultural agencies :
- MARDI and MPOB
New varieties of crops :
Oil palm (Tenera sp.),
Papaya (Eksotika
Malaysia), Maize

Development of Fruits and Seeds

in Plants
Fertilisation
When pollen lands on the
stigma of a flower
The sugary substance on the
surface of stigma stimulates the
pollen to germinate.
A pollen tube grows out from
the pollen.
The nucleus inside the pollen

 A pollen tube grows down

the style, towards the
ovary.
The male gametes are in
the tube
The tube carrying the male
gametes then enters the
ovule
One of the gametes fuses

Fertilisation

Germination of Seeds

After fertilisation, most of

the flower parts wither and
die.
Ovules grow inside the
ovary until they develop
into seeds.
The seed is made up of an :
embryo, and food testa

 Seeds have different

size, shape and colour.
Basic parts : seed coat,
food store and embryo
Endosperm : food store
in monocot seed
In dicot seed, food
stored in cotyledons

Physical Changes of Seedlings during

Germination
Factors affecting
the germination of

seeds:
i) optimum temperature
ii) water
iii) air
Germination : When the embryo
grows into seedlings
The embryo is made up of plumule
and radicle
It obtains food from cotyledon or
endosperm

 It is now called a seedling.

The seedling continues absorb food
from food store until it forms green
leaves to produce its own food by
photosynthesis.

Vegetative reproduction in Flowering

Plants
Vegetative reproduction is a

method of asexual
reproduction carried out by
some flowering plants.
Requires only one parents
Does not involve gamete and
fertilisation
The vegetative parts : leaves,
stems and roots

Application of Research on
Vegetative Reproduction
Stem cuttings
- apiece of twig or branch
cut off
from the parent plants.
- then place in a plastic bag
containing soil.
- Adventitious roots develop

 Examples : sugarcane,
hibiscus and bougainvillea
Tissue culture
- Produce new plants from
tissues instead of from the
bud of the parent plant.
- Produce a lot of plants in a
short time, does not take up
a lot of space and can be
carried out all over the year.

Good qualities and

more resistant
Example : banana,
paddy, tomato,
maize, coffee , oil
palm , orchid and
rubber