Chapter 16

Arbitrage Restrictions on Option Prices

Calls
The upper bound is C < S
If there are no dividend payouts, the lower bound is
C > max [ 0, S - K(1+r)-T]; i.e., C > max [ 0, S - PV(K)]
C=S

C=S-PV(K)

C=S-K
Note that C>S-K is a
weaker lower bound
than C>S-PV(K)
0

PV(K)

S
David Dubofsky
and 16-1

Proof that C > Max[0,S-PV(K)]

Obviously, C > 0
Proof that C > S-PV(K)
What if C < S-PV(K)?
Then C S + PV(K) < 0
Then -C +S - PV(K) > 0 permits arbitrage, because cash is
received today, and there are no cash outflows at expiration.
______At Expiration______
Today:
ST > K
ST < K
Buy call
-C
+(ST K)
Sell stock
+S
- ST
Lend -PV(K)
+K
+K
>0
0
-ST+K>0

0
- ST

David Dubofsky
and 16-2

Proof that C > Max[0,S-PV(K)]:

A Numerical Example

Let: C = 4, S = 44, K = 40, r = 6%, T = 1 mo., PV(K) = 39.80

What if 4 < 44 - 39.80 = 4.20?
Then 4 44 + 39.80 = -0.20 < 0
Then -4 + 44 39.80 = +0.20 > 0 permits an arbitrage

______At Expiration______
Today:
ST = 42
Buy call
-4
+2
Sell stock
+44
- 42
Lend -39.80
+ 40 + 40
+0.20

ST = 37
0
- 37

+3

David Dubofsky
and 16-3

For American Calls Only

The weaker lower bound is C > S - K
Violation of this bound permits instant arbitrage.
Proof:
What if C < S-K? (i.e., the call is selling for less than its intrinsic value;
e.g., S=44, K = 40 and C = 3.90).
Then,

Buy call
Exercise call
Sell stock

-C
-K
+S
>0

-3.90
-40 (thereby acquiring the stock)
+44
+0.10

David Dubofsky
and 16-4

Theoretical Implications of these Bounds

Because the price of an in-the-money call must exceed
S-PV(K), in the money calls on non-dividend paying
stocks will always have some time value before
expiration.
An American call on a non-dividend paying stock will
never be exercised before expiration. Why exercise for
S-K, when you can sell it for S-PV(K) or more?
The value of an American call on a non-dividend paying
stock is the same as the value of a European call on the
same stock, all else equal.
David Dubofsky
and 16-5

Lower bound for European calls

on Dividend Paying Stocks
C>max [0, S- D (1+r)-t1-K(1+r)-T]
D is the highest dividend possible paid at time t1<T (it is also
assumed that the ex-dividend date and the dividend payment date
are the same).
This means that deep in the money European calls on dividend
paying stocks can sell for less than their intrinsic value.

Example: if S=60, K=20, T=1 year, r=10%, PV(K)=18.18, PV(D) = 3, then

the lower bound is C>60-3-18.18 = 38.82. But intrinsic value is 40. Thus,
the European call can sell for less than its intrinsic value, with no
possible arbitrage.

David Dubofsky
and 16-6

Lower bound for American calls

on Dividend Paying Stocks

Proposition IV:
(a)

(b)
C MAX
(c)
(d)

0
S - K(1 r)- t1
S - D1 (1 r)- t1 K(1 r)- t2
S - D1 (1 r)- t1 D2 (1 r)- t2 K(1 r)-T

Because of IVb, we can state that :

An in the money American call on a dividend paying stock will
always have some time value, except (possibly) on the day before
it trades ex-dividend, and (always) on its expiration day.
An in the money American call will never be exercised early,
except on the day before it trades ex-dividend (if IVb is binding,
and t1 is one day (1/365 year)).
David Dubofsky
and 16-7

When will an American call be Exercised

Early? The Logic

Exercising an option early destroys its time value, so you will only
want to exercise early if the option has no time value.

Exercising early also destroys the downside protection provided by

a call (i.e., if ST < K), and requires spending $K earlier (thereby
losing interest that can be earned on $K).

So, the dividend that will be paid tomorrow must be sufficiently

great to compensate you for these costs of early exercise.

David Dubofsky
and 16-8

When will an American Call be Exercised

Early? The Algebra

Suppose that today, the day before a stock trades ex-dividend, a call is
selling is selling for its intrinsic value:
C(with-div) = S(with-div) K

Tomorrow, on the ex-dividend day, the calls lower bound is:

C= S(ex-div) PV(K)

Assume that E{C(ex-div)} = S(ex-div)-PV(K)+E( z )

You will want to exercise the call today if:
C(with-div) > E{C(ex-div)}
~
S(with-div)-K > E{S(ex-div)}-PV(K)+E( z )
Assume E(z) = 0, and since E{S(ex-div)} = S(with-div) div,
Div > K PV(K)
I.e., you will want to exercise early if the dividend exceeds the interest that can
be earned by investing PV(K) until the expiration day.
David Dubofsky
and 16-9

When will an American call be exercised

early? The Diagram
Lower bound, ex-dividend,
is S(ex-div) - K(1+r)-T

C
C (with-div)

Lower bound, just prior to the exdate, is S(with-div) K (t1 ~ 0)

Min
C(ex-div)

div
PV(K) K S(ex-div)

S(with-div)

It is possible that the American call will fall in value from C(with-div) to as
low as C(ex-div), on the ex-dividend day. American call owners will
exercise early, rather than watch the call decline in value.
David Dubofsky
and 16-10

Arbitrage Restrictions on Put Prices

Assume the stock pays no dividends.
Upper bounds are
American: P < K
European: P < K(1+r)-T

Lower bounds are

American: P > max (0, K-S)
European: P > max (0, K(1+r)-T S)

Thus, an American put cannot sell for less than its

intrinsic value, but a European put can!
David Dubofsky
and 16-11

Proof of the American Put Lower Bound

What if P < K S?
Then, P K + S < 0
Or, - P + K S > 0
Today:
Buy put
Buy stock
Exercise put

P
S
+K
>0

Numerical Example.
What if P = 2.70 when K = 40
and S = 37? (2.70 < 40 - 37)

Today:
Buy put
Buy stock
Exercise put

2.70
37
+ 40
+ 0.30

David Dubofsky
and 16-12

Proof of the European Put Lower Bound

What if: P < K(1+r)-T S?
Then, PK(1+r)T+S < 0
Or, -P+K(1+r)T S >0
At expiration:
ST>K
ST<K

Today
Buy put
Borrow
Buy stock

P
+K(1+r)-T
S
>0

+(KST)

K
+ST

K
+ST

>0

So, if P < K(1+r)-T S, an arbitrage is possible, because the trader can

receive a cash in-flow today, and not have to pay money in the future
(in fact, in some cases, the trader receives money in the future, too.
David Dubofsky
and 16-13

Put Pricing Bounds: The Diagram

P
A
E

P=K

P = K(1+r)-T
E
P=K-S

P=K(1+r)-T -S
E

PV(K)

A
K

Figure 16-5
Pricing Boundaries for Puts on Non-Dividend Paying Stocks
AAA shows the American put boundaries.
EEE shows the European put boundaries

David Dubofsky
and 16-14

Early Exercise of American Puts

Once an American put is sufficiently in-the-money, it will
sell for its intrinsic value, and it should then be exercised
early.
Exercising early will get you $K today, rather than at
expiration, and you can immediately invest that money to
earn interest.

David Dubofsky
and 16-15

Put-Call Parity
For European options on non-dividend paying stocks,
put-call parity is:
C P = S PV(K)
For European options on stocks paying known
dividends, put-call parity is:
C P = S PV(Divs) PV(K)
For European options on stocks paying unknown
dividends, put-call parity is:
S PVL(DivsL) PV(K)> C P > SPVH(DivsH) PV(K)
David Dubofsky
and 16-16

Proof of the Basic Put-Call Parity

Proposition: A Conversion
What if: C-P>S-K(1+r)-T?
Then: C-P-S+K(1+r)-T > 0
At Expiration:
ST<K
ST>K

Today:
Sell call

+C

Buy put

-P

+(K-ST)

Buy stock

-S

+ST

+ST

-K
0

-K
0

Borrow

+K(1+r)-T
>0

-(ST-K)

Therefore, if C-P>S-K(1+r)-T, an arbitrage is possible, because the

trader receives a cash inflow today, but does not have a cash out-flow
in the future.

David Dubofsky
and 16-17

Exploiting a Violation of Put-Call Parity:

An Example of a Reverse Conversion
Suppose C = 4.50, P = 2.50, S = 42, K = 40, r = 6%, T = 3
mos., PV(K) = 39.41.
CP = 4.52.5 = 2 < SPV(K) = 42 - 39.41 = 2.59.
At Expiration:
Today:
Buy call
Sell put
Sell stock
Lend

ST=37
-4.50
+2.50
+42.00
-39.41
+0.59

ST=44
0
-3
-37
+40
0

+4
0
-44
+40
0
David Dubofsky
and 16-18

Some Theoretical Implications

of Put-Call Parity

Rearrange, the basic put-call parity proposition to be C=-S+PV(K)-P.

This says that buying a call is like borrowing to buy stock; i.e., it is like
buying stock on margin. But in addition, the call owner also owns a put,
providing downside protection.

If r > 0, an at the money call is worth more than an at the money put with
the same K and T.

Given S, r, and T, then C-P is known, regardless of the bullishness or

bearishness that may pervade the market.

You can replicate the payoff from any position with the other three
securities (e.g. buying a put = selling stock, lending, and buying a call).

David Dubofsky
and 16-19

Put-Call Parity & Synthetic Positions

S = C-P+PV(K)
-S = -C+P-PV(K)
-P = S-C-PV(K)
P = -S+C+PV(K)
C = S+P-PV(K)
-C = -S-P+PV(K)
PV(K) = S-C+P

-PV(K) = -S+C-P

Sell stock short = write call, buy put, & borrow

Buy stock = buy call, write put & lend

Buy put = sell stock short, buy call, & lend
Write put = buy stock, write call, & borrow
Write call = sell stock short, write put, & lend

Buy call = buy stock, buy put, & borrow

Riskless borrowing = sell stock short,
buy call, & write put
Riskless lending = buy stock, write call,
& buy put
David Dubofsky
and 16-20

Put-Call Parity: What About

American Options?
Either a put or a call is always written when arbitraging a
put-call violation.
Therefore, an arbitrageur must guarantee that arbitrage
profits will be realized even if:
the written American call is exercised early (if the stock pays a
dividend), or
the written American put is exercised early.

David Dubofsky
and 16-21

American Put-Call Parity

No dividends (only the written put might be exercised
early):
S-K(1+r)-T > C-P > S-K
Stocks that pay dividends (the written call or the written
put might be exercised early):
S-PV(K) > C-P > S-PV(DH)-K
This last inequality can be quite wide.
David Dubofsky
and 16-22

American Put-Call Parity: An Example

Using GM at 3pm on February 15, 2000.

S=74.50, K=75, C=9, P=8.75, r=6% per year, T=221 days = 0.6055 year,
K(1+r)-T = 75(1.06)-0.6055 = 72.40.

The last ex-dividend date was on 2/7/2000, and the dividend amount was
$0.50 per share. Thus, assume D1H=0.55, t1=90 days=0.2466 year, PV(D1H)
= 0.5422, and D2H=0.60, t2=182 days=0.4986 year, PV(D2H) = 0.5828.

S-PV(K) > C-P > S-PV(DH)-K

74.5 - 72.4 > 9 - 8.75 > 74.5 0.5422 0.5828 75

2.1 > 0.25 > -1.625

Thus, there are no arbitrage opportunities. However, notice the width of the
no-arbitrage range, C-P.
David Dubofsky
and 16-23

Some Extra Slides on this Material

Note: In some chapters, we try to include some extra slides in an

effort to allow for a deeper (or different) treatment of the material in
the chapter.

If you have created some slides that you would like to share with the
community of educators that use our book, please send them to us!

David Dubofsky
and 16-24

We are now going to price options before

expiration. But before we do:
The Hockey Sticks have helped you learn an important
concept: Intrinsic Value.
For calls: MAX(S K, 0)
(You read this as: The maximum of: the stock price minus
the strike price OR zero.)
For puts: MAX(K S, 0)
(You read this as: The maximum of: the strike price minus
the stock price OR zero.)

David Dubofsky
and 16-25

Intrinsic Value, I.
It is really vital that you remember:
Intrinsic Value can be calculated whether an option is dead
or alive.
That is, you can always calculate the intrinsic value of an option.

David Dubofsky
and 16-26

Intrinsic Value, II.

At expiration, the value of an option is just its intrinsic value.

Before expiration, the value of an option is the sum of intrinsic
value and time value.
Therefore, before an option expires, you can always calculate its
intrinsic value.

David Dubofsky
and 16-27

Intrinsic Value, III.

Example 1. Suppose a call option exists with 21
days to expiration. Suppose this call is selling for
$1.68. The underlying asset price is $41.12.
Calculate the intrinsic value of a call with a strike price of 40.
What is the time value?
Calculate the intrinsic value of a call with a strike price of 45.
What is the time value?

David Dubofsky
and 16-28

Intrinsic Value, IV.

Example 2. Suppose a put option exists with 21
days to expiration. Suppose this put is selling for
$5.68. The underlying asset price is $41.12.
Calculate the intrinsic value of a put with a strike price of 40.
What is the time value?
Calculate the intrinsic value of a put with a strike price of 45.
What is the time value?

David Dubofsky
and 16-29

Intrinsic Value, IV.

Example 3. Now, suppose there are 0 days to
expiration.
Recalculate the intrinsic values for the two calls and
the two puts. (What is the time value here?)

David Dubofsky
and 16-30

Pricing Options Before Expiration, I.

Put-Call Parity
In what follows, the signs are very important.
Long Position (+)
Short Position (-)

David Dubofsky
and 16-31

 If we are long a stock and long a put, then we have

replicated a long call position.
S + P = C (do they cost the same?)
If we are long a stock and short a call, then we have
replicated a short put position.
S C = -P
The purple equal sign (=) means that the two sides are
not equal in cost, but are equal in replicating payoffs.

David Dubofsky
and 16-32

 If we are long a call and short a put, then we have

replicated a long stock position.
C P = S (cost the same?)
If we are long a put and short a call, then we have
replicated a short stock position.
P C = -S
By now, you may have noticed that the above equations
are all versions of the same equation. This is not a fluke.

David Dubofsky
and 16-33

Actual Long Call and Synthetic

Long Call Position
Suppose, At Expiration:
S<K

S=K

S>K

S-K

0
S
-K
0

0
S
-K
S-K

Actual Long Call:

0
Synthetic Long Call:
Long put
K-S
Long stock
S
Borrow
-K
0

David Dubofsky
and 16-34

 Reviewing some synthetic creations:

A short call and a long put creates a synthetic short
stock position. (Note: same strike price required.)
To hedge this position, borrow money and buy stock.

David Dubofsky
and 16-35

Therefore, at expiration:
S<K

S=K

S>K

Short Call:
Long Put:
Long stock:

0
K-S
S

0
0
S

-(S-K)
0
S

Borrow:

-K

-K

-K

What does it mean?

David Dubofsky
and 16-36

 Today, you borrow the an amount necessary to buy

the put, buy the stock, and sell the call, I.e., P+S-C.
At expiration, you have an asset worth K.
Note that this asset is riskless.
Therefore, you can finance this asset today by
borrowing the present value of K.
This yields a very important equation:

David Dubofsky
and 16-37

The Put-Call Parity Condition:

K
P+S-C=
(1+r)

K
P+S-C=0
(1+r)

OR,

K
P+S=C
(1+r)
David Dubofsky
and 16-38

Sometimes, this is called the noarbitrage condition

(S + P - C)(1+r) = K
Now, if you are looking for a really useful tattoo..

David Dubofsky
and 16-39

PCP allows us to price options before

expiration, but..
We need a call price to price a put using put-call parity
We need a put price to price a call using put-call parity
Nonetheless, PCP has some handy uses:

David Dubofsky
and 16-40

Read the signs. They Matter.

To create a synthetic long put:
P = C S + K/(1+r)
Buy the call,
Sell the stock,
Buy T-bills (invest at the risk-free rate)

David Dubofsky
and 16-41

Read the signs. They Matter.

To create a synthetic short put:
-P = -C + S - K/(1+r)

Sell the call,

Buy the stock,

Sell T-bills, (borrow at the risk-free rate)

David Dubofsky
and 16-42

Read the signs (maybe from your new

tattoo!) They Matter.
To create a synthetic long call:
C =

P + S - K/(1 + r)

Buy the put,

Buy the stock,

Sell T-bills (borrow at the risk-free rate)

David Dubofsky
and 16-43

You know what to do.

To create a synthetic short call:
- C = - P - S + K/(1 + r)

Sell the put,

Sell the stock,

Buy T-bills (invest at the risk-free rate)

David Dubofsky
and 16-44

Arbitrage Example
Suppose:
S = 40
K = 40
C = $3
P = $2
r = 6%/year
T= 3 months

Is there an arbitrage opportunity? Hint, yes.

David Dubofsky
and 16-45

Today:
Buy put:
Sell call:
Buy stock:
Borrow:

- $2
+ $3
+ $40
+ $39

At expiration:
We receive: K = $40
We repay: ($39)(1.015) = $39.59
Difference of $0.41

David Dubofsky
and 16-46