PM3125: Lectures 6 to 9

Content of Lectures 6 to 12:

Heat transfer:
- Source of heat
- Heat transfer
- Steam and electricity as heating media
- Determination of requirement of amount of
steam/electrical energy
- Steam pressure
- Mathematical problems on heat transfer

Prof. R. Shanthi

What is Heat?

Prof. R. Shanthi

What is Heat?

Heat is energy in transit.

Prof. R. Shanthi

Units of Heat
The SI unit is the joule (J),
which is equal to Newton-metre (Nm).
Historically, heat was measured in terms of the ability
to raise the temperature of water.
The calorie (cal): amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of 1 gramme of water by 1 C0 (from
14.50C to 15.50C)
In industry, the British thermal unit (Btu) is still used:
amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb
of water by 1 F0 (from 630F to 640F)
Prof. R. Shanthi

Conversion between different

units of heat:
1 J = 0.2388 cal = 0.239x10-3 kcal = 60.189 Btu
1 cal = 4.186 J = 3.969 x 10-3 Btu

Prof. R. Shanthi

Sensible Heat
What is 'sensible heat?

Sensible heat is associated

with a temperature change

Prof. R. Shanthi

Specific Heat Capacity

To raise the temperature by 1 K, different
substances need different amount of energy because
substances have different molecular configurations
and bonding (eg: copper, water, wood)
The amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 K is known
as the specific heat capacity
Specific heat capacity is denoted by c

Prof. R. Shanthi

Calculation of Sensible Heat

Q = m c dT
Q is the heat lost or gained by a substance
m is the mass of substance

c is the specific heat of substance which changes with temperature

T is the temperature

When temperature changes causes negligible changes in c,

Q = m c dT = m c T

where T is the temperature change in the substance

Prof. R. Shanthi

Calculation of Sensible Heat

When temperature changes causes significant changes in c,

Q = m c T cannot be used.
Instead, we use the following equation:

Q = H = m h
where H is the enthalpy change in the substance
and h is the specific enthalpy change in the substance.

To apply the above equation, the system should

remain at constant pressure and the associated
volume change must be negligibly small.
Prof. R. Shanthi

Calculation of Sensible Heat

Calculate the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 300 g Al from 25oC to 70oC.
Data: c = 0.896 J/g oC for Al

Q = m c T (since c is taken as a constant)

= (300 g) (0.896 J/g oC)(70 - 25)oC
= 12,096 J
= 13.1 kJ

Prof. R. Shanthi

10

Exchange of Heat
Calculate the final temperature (tf), when 100 g iron at 80oC is
tossed into 53.5g of water at 25oC.
Data: c = 0.452 J/g oC for iron and 4.186 J/g oC for water

Heat lost by iron = Heat gained by water

(m c T)iron = (m c T)water
(100 g) (0.452 J/g oC)(80 - tf)oC
= (53.5 g) (4.186 J/g oC)(tf - 25)oC
80 - tf = 4.955 (tf -25)
Prof. R. Shanthi

tf = 34.2oC

11

Latent Heat
What is latent heat?

Latent heat is associated with

phase change of matter

Prof. R. Shanthi

12

Phases of Matter

Prof. R. Shanthi

13

Phase Change
Heat required for phase changes:
Melting: solid liquid
Vaporization: liquid vapour
Sublimation: solid vapour

Heat released by phase changes:

Condensation: vapour liquid
Fusion: liquid solid
Deposition: vapour solid

Prof. R. Shanthi

14

Phase Diagram: Water

Prof. R. Shanthi

15

Phase Diagram: Water

Compressed liquid

Saturated liquid

Superheated
steam

Saturated steam

Prof. R. Shanthi

16

Phase Diagram: Water

Explain why water is at liquid
state at atm pressure

Prof. R. Shanthi

17

Phase Diagram: Carbon Dioxide

Explain why CO2 is at gas state
at atm pressure

Explain why CO2

cannot be made a
liquid at atm
pressure

Prof. R. Shanthi

18

Latent Heat
Latent heat is the amount of heat added per unit mass of
substance during a phase change
Latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat added to melt
a unit mass of ice OR it is the amount of heat removed
to freeze a unit mass of water.
Latent heat of vapourization is the amount of heat added
to vaporize a unit mass of water OR it is the amount of
heat removed to condense a unit mass of steam.
Prof. R. Shanthi

19

Water:
Specific Heat Capacities and Latent Heats
Specific heat of ice 2.06 J/g K (assumed constant)
Heat of fusion for ice/water 334 J/g (assumed constant)
Specific heat of water 4.18 J/g K (assumed constant)
Latent heat of vaporization cannot be assumed a
constant since it changes significantly with the pressure,
and could be found from the Steam Table
How to evaluate the sensible heat gained (or lost) by
superheated steam?
Prof. R. Shanthi

20

Water:
Specific Heat Capacities and Latent Heats
How to evaluate the sensible heat gained (or lost) by
superheated steam?

Q = m c T
cannot be used since changes in c with changing
temperature is NOT negligible.
Instead, we use the following equation:

Q = H = m h
provided the system is at constant pressure and the
associated volume change is negligible.
Prof. R. Shanthi
Enthalpies could be referred from the Steam21
Table

Properties of Steam
Learnt to refer to Steam Table to find properties of
steam such as saturated (or boiling point) temperature
and latent heat of vapourization at give pressures, and
enthalpies of superheated steam at various pressures and
temperatures.
Reference:
Chapter 6 of Thermodynamics for Beginners with worked
examples by R. Shanthini
(published by Science Education Unit, Faculty of Science,
University of Peradeniya)
(also uploaded at http://www.rshanthini.com/PM3125.htm)

Prof. R. Shanthi

22

Warming curve for water

What is the amount of heat required to change 2 kg of ice
at -20oC to steam at 150oC at 2 bar pressure?

-20oC
Prof. R. Shanthi

ice
23

Warming curve for water

What is the amount of heat required to change 2 kg of ice
at -20oC to steam at 150oC at 2 bar pressure?

0oC
-20oC
Prof. R. Shanthi

melting point of ice

ice
24

Warming curve for water

What is the amount of heat required to change 2 kg of ice
at -20oC to steam at 150oC at 2 bar pressure?

120.2oC

boiling point of water at 2 bar

Boiling point of water at 1 atm pressure is
100oC.
Boiling point of water at 2 bar is 120.2oC.
[Refer the Steam Table.]

0oC
-20oC
Prof. R. Shanthi

melting point of ice

ice
25

Warming curve for water

What is the amount of heat required to change 2 kg of ice
at -20oC to steam at 150oC at 2 bar pressure?
150oC
120.2oC

superheated steam
Specific heat
boiling point of water at 2 bar

Latent heat

Specific heat
0oC
-20oC
Prof. R. Shanthi

melting point of ice

Specific heat
ice

Latent heat

26

Warming curve for water

What is the amount of heat required to change 2 kg of ice
at -20oC to steam at 150oC at 2 bar pressure?
Specific heat required to raise the temperature of ice from -20oCto 0oC
= (2 kg) (2.06 kJ/kg oC) [0 - (-20)]oC = 82.4 kJ
Latent heat required to turn ice into water at 0oC
= (2 kg) (334 kJ/kg) = 668 kJ
Specific heat required to raise the temperature of water from 0oC to
120.2oC
= (2 kg) (4.18 kJ/kg oC) [120.2 - 0)]oC = 1004.9 kJ
Prof. R. Shanthi

27

Warming curve for water

What is the amount of heat required to change 2 kg of ice
at -20oC to steam at 150oC at 2 bar pressure?
Latent heat required to turn water into steam at 120.2oC and at 2 bar
= (2 kg) (2202 kJ/kg) = 4404 kJ
[Latent heat of vapourization at 2 bar is 2202 kJ/kg as could be
referred to from the Steam Table]

Specific heat required to raise the temperature of steam from 120.2oC

to 150oC
= (2 kg) (2770 2707) kJ/kg = 126 kJ
[Enthalpy at 120.2oC and 2 bar is the saturated steam enthalpy of
2707 kJ/kg and the enthalpy at 150oC and 2 bar is 2770 kJ/kg as
could be referred to from the Steam Table]

Prof. R. Shanthi

28

Warming curve for water

What is the amount of heat required to change 2 kg of ice
at -20oC to steam at 150oC at 2 bar pressure?
Total amount of heat required
= 82.4 kJ + 668 kJ + 1004.9 kJ + 4404 kJ + 126 kJ
= 6285.3 kJ

Prof. R. Shanthi

29

Application: Heat Exchanger

It is an industrial equipment in which heat is transferred from a hot
fluid (a liquid or a gas) to a cold fluid (another liquid or gas) without
the two fluids having to mix together or come into direct contact.
Cold fluid
at TC,out

Hot fluid
at TH,in

Cold fluid
at TC,in

Heat lost by the hot fluid

= Heat gained by the cold fluid

Prof. R. Shanthi

Hot fluid
at TH,out
30

Application: Heat Exchanger

Prof. R. Shanthi

31

Heat Exchanger
Heat lost by the hot fluid = Heat gained by the cold fluid

.m

hot

chot (TH,in TH,out

mass flow rate

of hot fluid

.
)=m

ccold (TC,out TC,in)

mass flow rate

of cold fluid

Specific heat
of hot fluid

Prof. R. Shanthi

cold

Temperature
decrease in the
hot fluid

Specific heat
of cold fluid
Temperature
increase in the
cold fluid
32

Heat Exchanger
Heat lost by the hot fluid = Heat gained by the cold fluid

.m

hot

chot (TH,in TH,out

.
)=m

cold

ccold (TC,out TC,in)

The above is true only under the following conditions:

(1) Heat exchanger is well insulated so that no heat is lost to the
environment
(2) There are no phase changes occurring within the heat
exchanger.

Prof. R. Shanthi

33

Heat Exchanger
If the heat exchanger is NOT well insulated, then

Heat lost by the hot fluid = Heat gained by the cold fluid
+ Heat lost to the environment

Prof. R. Shanthi

34

Worked Example 1 in Heat Exchanger

High pressure liquid water at 10 MPa (100 bar) and
30oC enters a series of heating tubes. Superheated
steam at 1.5 MPa (15 bar) and 200oC is sprayed over
the tubes and allowed to condense. The condensed
steam turns into saturated water which leaves the
heat exchanger. The high pressure water is to be
heated up to 170oC. What is the mass of steam
required per unit mass of incoming liquid water?
The heat exchanger is assumed to be well insulated
(adiabatic).
Prof. R. Shanthi

35

Solution to Worked Example 1 in Heat Exchanger

Prof. R. Shanthi

36

Solution to Worked Example 1 in Heat Exchanger contd.

High pressure (100 bar) water enters at 30oC and leaves at 198.3oC.
Boiling point of water at 100 bar is 311.0oC. Therefore, no phase
changes in the high pressure water that is getting heated up in the
heater.
Heat gained by high pressure water
= ccold (TC,out TC,in)
= (4.18 kJ/kg oC) x (170-30)oC
= 585.2 kJ/kg
[You could calculate the above by taking the difference in enthalpies at
the 2 given states from tables available.]

Prof. R. Shanthi

37

Solution to Worked Example 1 in Heat Exchanger contd.

Superheated steam at 1.5 MPa (15 bar) and 200oC is sprayed over
the tubes and allowed to condense. The condensed steam turns into
saturated water which leaves the heat exchanger.
Heat lost by steam
= heat lost by superheated steam to become saturated steam
+ latent heat of steam lost for saturated steam to turn into
saturated water
= Enthalpy of superheated steam at 15 bar and 200oC
Enthalpy of saturated steam at 15 bar
+ Latent heat of vapourization at 15 bar
= (2796 kJ/kg 2792 kJ/kg) + 1947 kJ/kg = 1951 kJ/kg
Prof. R. Shanthi

38

Solution to Worked Example 1 in Heat Exchanger contd.

Since there is no heat loss from the heater,
Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by high pressure water
Mass flow rate of steam x 1951 kJ/kg
= Mass flow rate of water x 585.2 kJ/kg
Mass flow rate of steam / Mass flow rate of water
= 585.2 / 1951
= 0.30 kg stream / kg of water

Prof. R. Shanthi

39

Assignment
Give the design of a heat exchanger
which has the most effective heat
transfer properties.
Learning objectives:
1) To be able to appreciate heat transfer applications in pharmaceutical
industry
2) To become familiar with the working principles of various heat
exchangers
3) To get a mental picture of different heat exchangers so that solving
heat transfer problems in class becomes more interesting

Prof. R. Shanthi

40

Worked Example 2 in Heat Exchanger

Steam enters a heat exchanger at 10 bar and 200oC and
leaves it as saturated water at the same pressure. Feedwater enters the heat exchanger at 25 bar and 80oC and
leaves at the same pressure and at a temperature 20oC
less than the exit temperature of the steam. Determine the
ratio of the mass flow rate of the steam to that of the
feed-water, neglecting heat losses from the heat
exchanger.
If the feed-water leaving the heat exchanger is fed
directly to a boiler to be converted to steam at 25 bar and
300oC, find the heat required by the boiler per kg of feedwater.
Prof. R. Shanthi

41

Solution to Worked Example 2 in Heat Exchanger

- Steam enters at 10 bar and 200oC and leaves it as saturated water at
the same pressure.
- Saturation temperature of water at 10 bar is 179.9oC.
- Feed-water enters the heat exchanger at 25 bar and 80oC and leaves
at the same pressure and at a temperature 20oC less than the exit
temperature of the steam, which is 179.9oC.
- Boiling point of water at 25 bar is (221.8+226.0)/2 = 223.9oC.
- Therefore, no phase changes in the feed-water that is being heated.
Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by feed-water (with no heat losses)
Mass flow rate of steam x [2829 2778 + 2015] kJ/kg
= Mass flow rate of feed-water x [4.18 x (179.9-20-80) ] kJ/kg
Mass flow of steam / Mass flow of feed-water
= 333.98 / 2066
= 0.1617 kg stream / kg of water
Prof. R. Shanthi
42

Solution to Worked Example 1 in Heat Exchanger contd.

If the feed-water leaving the heat exchanger is fed directly to a
boiler to be converted to steam at 25 bar and 300oC, find the heat
required by the boiler per kg of feed-water.
- Temperature of feed-water leaving the heat exchanger is 159.9oC
- Boiling point of water at 25 bar is (221.8+226.0)/2 = 223.9oC
- The feed-water is converted to superheated steam at 300oC
Heat required by the boiler per kg of feed-water
= {4.18 x (223.9-159.9) + (1850+1831)/2
+ [(3138+3117)/2 (2802+2803)/2]} kJ/kg
= {267.52 + 1840.5 + [3127.5 2802.5]} kJ/kg
= 2433 kJ/kg of feed-water
Prof. R. Shanthi

43

Heat Transfer
is the means by which
energy moves from
a hotter object to
a colder object

Prof. R. Shanthi

44

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

Conduction
is the flow of heat by direct contact between a warmer and a
cooler body.

Convection
is the flow of heat carried by moving gas or liquid.
(warm air rises, gives up heat, cools, then falls)

Radiation
is the flow of heat without need of an intervening medium.
(by infrared radiation, or light)

Prof. R. Shanthi

45

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

Latent heat

Conduction

Convection

Radiation

Prof. R. Shanthi

46

Conduction
HOT
(lots of vibration)

COLD
(not much vibration)

Heat travels
along the rod

Prof. R. Shanthi

47

Conduction
Conduction is the process whereby heat is transferred
directly through a material, any bulk motion of the
material playing no role in the transfer.
Those materials that conduct heat well are called
thermal conductors, while those that conduct heat poorly
are known as thermal insulators.
Most metals are excellent thermal conductors, while
wood, glass, and most plastics are common thermal
insulators.
The free electrons in metals are responsible for the
excellent thermal conductivity of metals.
Prof. R. Shanthi

48

Conduction: Fouriers Law

Cross-sectional area A

Q =kA

( )t
T
L

What is the unit of k?

Prof. R. Shanthi

Q = heat transferred
k = thermal conductivity
A = cross sectional area
T = temperature difference
between two ends
L = length
t = duration of heat transfer
49

Thermal Conductivities
Substance

Thermal
Conductivity
k [W/m.K]

Substance

Thermal
Conductivity
k [W/m.K]

Syrofoam

0.010

Glass

0.80

Air

0.026

Concrete

1.1

Wool

0.040

Iron

79

Wood

0.15

Aluminum

240

Body fat

0.20

Silver

420

Water

0.60

Diamond

2450

Prof. R. Shanthi

50

Conduction through Single Wall

Use Fouriers Law:
T

Q =kA

( )t
T
L

x
Prof. R. Shanthi

T T1
x

Q =

k A (T1 T2)
x
51

Conduction through Single Wall

.

Q =

k A (T1 T2)
x

x
Prof. R. Shanthi

T T1
x

T1 T2
x/(kA)

Thermal resistance (in K/W)

(opposing heat flow) 52 52

Conduction through Composite Wall

T
B
C
A
.

Q =

kA

kB

kC

xA

xB

xC

T1 T2
(x/kA)A

Prof. R. Shanthi

T2 T3
(x/kA)B

T3 T4
(x/kA)C
53

53

Conduction through Composite Wall

.

Q =

T1 T2
(x/kA)A

T2 T3
(x/kA)B

T3 T4
(x/kA)C

Q (x/kA)A + (x/kA)B + (x/kA)C

= T1 T2 + T2 T3 + T3 T4

Q =

T1 T4
(x/kA)A + (x/kA)B + (x/kA)C
54

Prof. R. Shanthi

54

Example 1
An industrial furnace wall is constructed of 21 cm thick
fireclay brick having k = 1.04 W/m.K. This is covered on
the outer surface with 3 cm layer of insulating material
having k = 0.07 W/m.K. The innermost surface is at 1000oC
and the outermost surface is at 40oC. Calculate the steady
state heat transfer per area.
Solution: We start with the equation

Q =

Tin Tout
(x/kA)fireclay + (x/kA)insulation

Prof. R. Shanthi

55

Example 1 continued
.

(1000 40) A
Q =
(0.21/1.04) + (0.03/0.07)

Q
A

= 1522.6 W/m2

Prof. R. Shanthi

56

Example 2
We want to reduce the heat loss in Example 1 to 960 W/m2.
What should be the insulation thickness?
Solution: We start with the equation

Q =

Tin Tout
(x/kA)fireclay + (x/kA)insulation

(1000 40)
2
W/m
=
960
=
A
(0.21/1.04) + (x)insulation /0.07)
(x)insulation
Prof. R. Shanthi

= 5.6 cm
57

Conduction through hollow-cylinder

ro
Ti

ri
To

Q =

Ti To
[ln(ro/ri)] / 2kL

Prof. R. Shanthi

58

r3

Conduction through the composite

wall in a hollow-cylinder
r2

Ti

Material A

r1

Material B

Q =

To

Ti To
[ln(r2/r1)] / 2kAL + [ln(r3/r2)] / 2kBL

Prof. R. Shanthi

59

Example 3
A thick walled tube of stainless steel ( k = 19 W/m.K) with
2-cm inner diameter and 4-cm outer diameter is covered
with a 3-cm layer of asbestos insulation (k = 0.2 W/m.K).
If the inside-wall temperature of the pipe is maintained at
600oC and the outside of the insulation at 100oC, calculate
the heat loss per meter of length.
Solution: We start with the equation

Q =

Ti To
[ln(r2/r1)] / 2kAL + [ln(r3/r2)] / 2kBL

Prof. R. Shanthi

60

Example 3 continued

Q =

2 L ( 600 100)
[ln(2/1)] / 19 + [ln(5/2)] / 0.2

Q
L
Prof. R. Shanthi

= 680 W/m

61

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

Conduction

is the flow of heat by direct contact between a warmer and a

cooler body.

Convection
is the flow of heat carried by moving gas or liquid.
(warm air rises, gives up heat, cools, then falls)

Radiation
is the flow of heat without need of an intervening medium.
(by infrared radiation, or light)

Prof. R. Shanthi

62

Convection
Convection is the process in which heat is carried from
place to place by the bulk movement of a fluid (gas or
liquid).

Prof. R. Shanthi

Convection currents are set up when

a pan of water is heated.
63

Convection
It explains why breezes come from the ocean in the day
and from the land at night

Prof. R. Shanthi

64

Convection: Newtons Law of Cooling

Flowing fluid at Tfluid
Heated surface at Tsurface

Qconv. = h A (Tsurface Tfluid)

Area exposed
Heat transfer coefficient (in W/m2.K)
Prof. R. Shanthi

65

Convection: Newtons Law of Cooling

Flowing fluid at Tfluid
Heated surface at Tsurface

Qconv. =

Tsurface Tfluid
1/(hA)

Convective heat resistance (in K/W) 66

Prof. R. Shanthi

Example 4
The convection heat transfer coefficient between a surface at 50oC and
ambient air at 30oC is 20 W/m2.K. Calculate the heat flux leaving the
surface by convection.

Solution:
Flowing fluid at Tfluid = 30oC

Use Newtons Law of cooling :

= h A (Tsurface Tfluid)
conv.

= (20 W/m2.K) x A x (50-30)oC

Heated surface at Tsurface = 50oC

h = 20 W/m2.K
Prof. R. Shanthi

Heat flux leaving the surface:

.
Q
conv.
= 20 x 20 = 400 W/m2
A
67

Example 5
Air at 300C flows over a flat plate of dimensions 0.50 m by 0.25 m.
If the convection heat transfer coefficient is 250 W/m2.K, determine
the heat transfer rate from the air to one side of the plate when the
plate is maintained at 40C.

Solution:
Flowing fluid at Tfluid = 300oC
Heated surface at Tsurface = 40oC

Use Newtons Law of cooling :

= h A (Tsurface Tfluid)
conv.
= 250 W/m2.K x 0.125 m2
x (40 - 300)oC
= - 8125 W/m2

h = 250 W/m2.K
A = 0.50x0.25 m2
Prof. R. Shanthi

Heat is transferred from

the air to the plate.
68

Forced Convection
In forced convection, a fluid is forced by external forces
such as fans.

In forced convection over external surface:

Tfluid = the free stream temperature (T), or a
temperature far removed from the surface
In forced convection through a tube or channel:
Tfluid = the bulk temperature
Prof. R. Shanthi

69

Free Convection
In free convection, a fluid is circulated due to buoyancy
effects, in which less dense fluid near the heated surface rises
and thereby setting up convection.

In free (or partially forced) convection over

external surface:
Tfluid = (Tsurface + Tfree stream) / 2
In free or forced convection through a tube or
channel:
Tfluid = (Tinlet + Toutlet) / 2
Prof. R. Shanthi

70

Change of Phase Convection

Change-of-phase convection is observed with
boiling or condensation
.
It is a very complicated mechanism and
therefore will not be covered in this course.

Prof. R. Shanthi

71

Overall Heat Transfer through a Plane Wall

Fluid A
at TA > T1

Q
T
x

Q =

TA T1
1/(hAA)

Prof. R. Shanthi

T1 T2
x/(kA)

Fluid B
at TB < T2
=

T2 TB
1/(hBA)
72

Overall Heat Transfer through a Plane Wall

Q =

TA T1
1/(hAA)

Q =

T1 T2
x/(kA)

T2 TB
1/(hBA)

TA TB
1/(hAA) + x/(kA) + 1/(hBA)

Q = U A (TA TB)
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient given by
Prof. R. Shanthi

1/U = 1/hA + x/k + 1/hB

73

Overall heat transfer through hollow-cylinder

Fluid A is inside the pipe
Fluid B is outside the pipe
TA > TB

ro

Ti r
i

To

Q = U A (TA TB)
where
1/UA = 1/(hAAi) + ln(ro/ri) / 2kL + 1/(hBAo)
Prof. R. Shanthi

74

Example 6
Steam at 120oC flows in an insulated pipe. The pipe is
mild steel (k = 45 W/m K) and has an inside radius of 5
cm and an outside radius of 5.5 cm. The pipe is covered
with a 2.5 cm layer of 85% magnesia (k = 0.07 W/m K).
The inside heat transfer coefficient (hi) is 85 W/m2 K, and
the outside coefficient (ho) is 12.5 W/m2 K. Determine the
heat transfer rate from the steam per m of pipe length, if
the surrounding air is at 35oC.
Solution: Start with

Q = U A (TA TB) = U A (120 35)

What is UA?
Prof. R. Shanthi

75

Example 6 continued
1/UA = 1/(hAAi) + ln(ro/ri) / 2kL + + 1/(hBAo)
1/UA = 1/(85Ain) + ln(5.5/5) / 2(45)L
+ ln(8/5.5) / 2(0.07)L + 1/(12.5Aout)
Ain = 2(0.05)L and Aout = 2(0.08)L
1/UA = (0.235 + 0.0021 +5.35 + 1) / 2L
Prof. R. Shanthi

76

Example 6 continued
UA = 2L / (0.235 + 0.0021 +5.35 + 1)

Q = U A (120 35)
air

steel

= 2L (120 35) / (0.235 + 0.0021 +5.35 + 1)

steam

= 81 L

insulation

Q / L = 81 W/m
Prof. R. Shanthi

77

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

Conduction

is the flow of heat by direct contact between a warmer and a

cooler body.

Convection

is the flow of heat carried by moving gas or liquid.

(warm air rises, gives up heat, cools, then falls)

Radiation
is the flow of heat without need of an intervening medium.
(by infrared radiation, or light)

Prof. R. Shanthi

78

Radiation
Radiation is the process in which energy is transferred by
means of electromagnetic waves of wavelength band between
0.1 and 100 micrometers solely as a result of the temperature
of a surface.
Heat transfer by radiation
can take place through
vacuum. This is because
electromagnetic waves
can propagate through
empty space.
Prof. R. Shanthi

79

The StefanBoltzmann Law of Radiation

Q
t

= A T4

= emissivity, which takes a value between 0 (for

an ideal reflector) and 1 (for a black body).

= 5.668 x 10-8 W/m2.K4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann

constant
A = surface area of the radiator
T = temperature of the radiator in Kelvin.
Prof. R. Shanthi

80

Why is the
mother shielding
her cub?

Ratio of the surface

area of a cub to its
volume is much larger
than for its mother.

Prof. R. Shanthi

81

What is the Suns surface temperature?

The sun provides about 1000 W/m2 at the Earth's surface.

Assume the Sun's emissivity = 1
Distance from Sun to Earth = R = 1.5 x 1011 m
Radius of the Sun = r = 6.9 x 108 m
Prof. R. Shanthi

82

What is the Suns surface temperature?

Q
t

= A T4

(4 1.52 x 1022 m2)(1000 W/m2)

(4 6.92 x 1016 m2)

= 5.98 x 1018 m2

= 2.83 x 1026 W
T4 =

2.83 x 1026 W
(1) (5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4) (5.98 x 1018 m2)

Prof. R. Shanthi

T = 5375 K

83

If object at temperature T is surrounded by

an environment at temperature T0, the net
radioactive heat flow is:
Q
= A (T4 - To4 )
t

Temperature of the radiating surface

Temperature of the environment
Prof. R. Shanthi

84

Example 7
What is the rate at which radiation is emitted by a surface
of area 0.5 m2, emissivity 0.8, and temperature 150C?
Solution:

Q
t
0.8

Q
t

= A T4

[(273+150) K]4
0.5 m2

5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4

= (0.8) (5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4) (0.5 m2) (423 K)4

= 726 W

Prof. R. Shanthi

85

Example 8
If the surface of Example 7 is placed in a large, evacuated chamber
whose walls are maintained at 25C, what is the net rate at which
radiation is exchanged between the surface and the chamber walls?

Solution:

Q
t

= A (T4 - To4 )
[(273+25) K]4
[(273+150) K]4

Q
t

= (0.8) x (5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4) x (0.5 m2)

x [(423 K)4 -(298 K)4 ]
= 547 W

Prof. R. Shanthi

86

Example 8 continued
Note that 547 W of heat loss from the surface occurs at
the instant the surface is placed in the chamber. That
is, when the surface is at 150oC and the chamber wall
is at 25oC.
With increasing time, the surface would cool due to
the heat loss. Therefore its temperature, as well as the
heat loss, would decrease with increasing time.
Steady-state conditions would eventually be achieved
when the temperature of the surface reached that of the
surroundings.
Prof. R. Shanthi

87

Example 9
Under steady state operation, a 50 W incandescent light bulb has a
surface temperature of 135C when the room air is at a temperature
of 25C. If the bulb may be approximated as a 60 mm diameter
sphere with a diffuse, gray surface of emissivity 0.8, what is the
radiant heat transfer from the bulb surface to its surroundings?

Q
t

Solution:

= A (T4 - To4 )

[(273+135) K]4

Q
t

[(273+25) K]4

= (0.8) x (5.67 x 10-8 J/s.m2.K4) x [ x (0.06) m2]

x [(408 K)4 -(298 K)4 ]
= 10.2

Prof. R. Shanthi

(about 20% of the power is dissipated by radiation)

88