Scanning Electron Microscopy

(SEM)

How do we get an image?

Electrons out

Electrons in

or: x-rays out

In brief: we shoot high-energy electrons and

analyze the outcoming electrons/x-rays

The instrument in brief

How do we get an image?

Electron gun

156 electrons!

Detector

Image

Electron beam-sample interactions

The incident electron beam is scattered in the sample, both elastically and

inelastically
This gives rise to various signals that we can detect (more on that on next slide)
Interaction volume increases with increasing acceleration voltage and decreases

with increasing atomic number

Signals from the sample

Incoming electrons
Secondary electrons
Auger electrons
Backscattered
electrons

Cathodoluminescence (light)
X-rays

Sample

Where does the signals come from?

Diameter of the interaction

volume is larger than the
electron spot
resolution is poorer than the
size of the electron spot
Image: Department of Geology and
Geophysics, Louisiana State University

Secondary electrons (SE)

Generated from the collision between the incoming
electrons and the loosely bonded outer electrons
Low energy electrons (~10-50 eV)
Only SE generated close to surface escape
(topographic information is obtained)
Number of SE is greater than the number of
incoming electrons

MENA3100

Backscattered electrons (BSE)

A fraction of the incident
electrons is retarded by the
electro-magnetic field of the
nucleus and if the scattering
angle is greater than 180 the
electron can escape from the
surface

BSE vs SE

Images: Greg Meeker, USGS

MENA3100

X-rays
Photons not electrons
Each element has a fingerprint
X-ray signal
Poorer spatial resolution than
BSE and SE
Relatively few X-ray signals are
emitted and the detector is
inefficient
relatively long signal collecting times are
needed

MENA3100

Detectors
Backscattered electron
detector:
(Solid-State Detector)

Secondary electron detector:

(Everhart-Thornley)

Our traditional detectors

Secondary electrons: Everhart-Thornley Detector

Backscattered electrons: Solid State Detector

X-rays: Energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS)

Si(Li) detectors
These consist essentially of a 35mm thick silicon junction type p-i-n diode
(same as PIN diode) with a bias of 1000 V across it.
The lithium-drifted centre part forms the non-conducting i-layer, where Li
compensates the residual acceptors which would otherwise make the layer
p-type.
When an X-ray photon passes through, it causes a swarm of electron-hole
pairs to form, and this causes a voltage pulse.

To obtain sufficiently low conductivity, the detector must be maintained at

low temperature, and liquid-nitrogen must be used for the best resolution.
With some loss of resolution, the much more convenient Peltier cooling can
be employed

Everhart Thornley detector

An Everhart Thornley detector detects secondary electrons.
These strike a scintillator, e.g., phosphor, which emits light. The light is
transmitted down a perspex pipe to a photo-multiplier.

This produces a voltage which controls the CRT. The scintillator is at a high
voltage to attract electrons. It is surrounded by a Faraday cage (a mesh at a
ground potential), which prevents it from interfering with the electron beam

The most versatile instrument for a

materials scientist?
What can we study in a SEM?
Topography and morphology
Chemistry
Crystallography
Orientation of grains
In-situ experiments:
o Reactions with atmosphere
o Effects of temperature

Easy sample
preparation!!
Big samples!

 A SEM typically has orders of magnitude better depth of focus than

a optical microscope making SEM suitable for studying rough
surfaces