An air mass is any large homogeneous body of air.

Air
masses tend to acquire some of the properties (e.g.,
temperature, humidity, etc.) of the surface over which they
reside. Source regions for air masses may be land (continentall
air masses) or water (maritime air masses).
Air masses may further be of polar or tropical origin. A
cP air mass is a continental polar air mass. A cT air mass is a
continental tropical air mass. The corresponding maritime air
masses are mP and mT.
As air masses move, they leave their source regions and
begin to travel over surfaces that have different
characteristics. A k or a w after the aforementioned
designations stands for colder than the surface over which the
air mass moves, or warmer, respectively. A cPk, for example, is a
continental polar air mass that is colder than the surface over
which it is moving. A mTw is a maritime tropical air mass that is
warmer than the surface over which it is moving.

Air Masses uniform bodies of air

An air mass is a large body of air that has
similar temperature and moisture properties
throughout. The best source regions for air masses
are large flat areas where air can be stagnant long
enough to take on the characteristics of the surface
below.
Maritime tropical air masses (mT),
for
example, develop over the subtropical oceans and
transport heat and moisture northward into the U.S..
In contrast, continental polar air masses (cP), which
originate over the northern plains of Canada,
transport colder and drier air southward.

Once an air mass moves out of its

source region, it is modified as it
encounters
surface
conditions
different than those found in the
source region. For example, as a polar
air mass moves southward, it
encounters warmer land masses and
consequently, is heated by the ground
below. Air masses typically clash in
the middle latitudes, producing some
very interesting weather.

There are several principle air masses

typically found over the United States.
Because of the difference in the source
regions for these air masses between
summer and winter, the air masses
themselves take on different properties
with the change if seasons. A summertime
cP, for instance, differs markedly from
wintertime cP.

Air Mass Source Regions

Air masses form in "source regions"

where there is little topography and
relatively stagnant winds near the
surface. The air mass takes on the
properties of the surface of the
source region (e.g., dry, hot, moist,
etc.). It takes several days for an air
mass to "form", so they generally form
in areas of high pressure (light winds).

Five air masses affect the United States during the

course of a typical year: continental polar,
continental arctic, continental tropical, maritime
polar, and maritime tropical.
oContinental air masses are characterized by dry
air near the surface while maritime air masses are
moist.
oPolar air masses are characterized by cold air near
the surface while tropical air masses are warm or
hot. Arctic air masses are extremely cold.

Continental polar (cP) or continental arctic (cA) air masses

are cold, dry, and stable. These air masses originate over
northern Canada and Alaska as a result of radiational cooling.
They move southward, east of Rockies into the Plains, then
eastward. Continental polar or continental arctic air masses are
marked by surface high pressure, cold temperatures, and low
dew points.
Maritime polar (mP) air masses are cool, moist, and
unstable. Some maritime polar air masses originate as
continental polar air masses over Asia and move westward over
the Pacific, collecting warmth and moisture from the ocean.
Some mP air masses originate from the North Atlantic and
move southwestward toward the Northeast States. The latter air
mass generally is colder and drier than the mP off of the
Pacific.

Maritime tropical (mT) air masses are warm, moist, and

usually unstable. Some maritime tropical air masses originate
in the subtropical Pacific Ocean, where it is warm and air must
travel a long distance over water. These rarely extend north or
east of southern California. Some maritime tropical air masses
originate over the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. They can
be associated with fog and low clouds as they moves
northward. In the spring and summer, this air mass accounts for
the thunderstorms in the Great Plains and elsewhere.
Continental tropical (cT) air masses are hot, dry, unstable at
low levels and generally stable aloft (upper-level ridge)
Continental tropical air masses originate in northern Mexico.
They are characterized by clear skies and negligible rainfall. If
one moves into the Great Plains and stagnates, a severe drought
can result.

An air mass can have its source region

properties modified by moving over another
source region. This modification can result in a
complete transformation. As an example, cP air
from Asia is the original source region for mP air
that invades North America.

Air mass weather is the term used to

denote weather patterns when influenced by a
dominant air mass. Air mass weather dominates
the stable weather patterns over most of North
America for much of the year.

Air masses can be modified significantly as they pass

over regions with different characteristics. When air
masses are modified, they are renamed according to
their new characteristics. Topography can play a
crucial role in the modification of air masses. For
example, the Rocky Mountains cause flow from the
west to be lifted over the mountains. The originally
mP air loses its moisture as it precipitates, leaving dry
air to move eastward. Hence, mP air becomes cP air
after it is forced over the Rockies.
Most large-scale weather events occur at the
boundary of two or more air masses.

A front is a transition zone between two air

masses of differing density, temperature, humidity,
etc. A frontal zone is the vertical extension of a
front. The positions of fronts are plotted on
weather maps using data from surface readings and
radiosonde soundings. Fronts are located by
plotting:
Sharp temperature differences over a relatively
short
distance.
Changes in the airs moisture content (changes in
dew point).
Shifts in wind direction.
Pressure and pressure changes.

Fronts are zones of transition between two

different air masses. The zone may be 20 miles across or
it may be 100 miles across, but from one side of a front
to the other, one clearly would sense that the properties
of an air mass had changed significantly (e.g., contrasts
in temperature and dew point, wind direction, cloud
cover, and on-going weather). The frontal zone
represents the leading edge of a wedge of cold/cool air. If
the wedge is moving into an area of warmer air, the front
is called a cold front. If the wedge is retreating and
warmer air is moving into an area previously occupied
by cool air, the front is termed a warm front.

Types of Fronts

Fronts are boundaries between air masses of

different temperatures. Fronts are actually zones
of transition, but sometimes the transition zone,
called a frontal zone, can be quite sharp.
The type of front depends on both the direction
in which the air mass is moving and the
characteristics of the air mass. There are four
types of fronts that will be described below: cold
front, warm front, stationary front, and occluded
front.

A stationary front is a boundary

between two air masses that displays very
little movement. The winds on either side of a
stationary front are parallel but blow in
opposite directions.

Stationary front- a front that does not move or barely moves.

Stationary fronts behave like warm fronts, but are more
quiescent.
Many times the winds on both sides of a stationary front are
parallel to the front.
Typically stationary fronts form when polar air masses are
modified significantly so as to lose their character (e.g., cold
fronts which stall).

Cold fronts form along the boundary

between cold, stable air and warm, unstable air.
Because cold air is denser than warm air, the cold
air mass tends to laterally displace the warm air
mass, causing it to rise.

Cold fronts are associated with a trough of low

pressure (denoted by a kink in isobars on a weather map).
Lowest pressures are found just before the arrival of the
front and temperatures decrease as the front passes. The
leading edge of a cold front is steep due to friction
between the dense air and the ground.

The horizontal cross section of a typical cold front is

shown below. The cold air is on the left in this
diagram.

Cold front- a front in which cold air is replacing

warm air at the surface.
Some of the characteristics of cold fronts include
the following:
oThe slope of a typical cold front is 1:100 (vertical
to horizontal).
oCold fronts tend to move faster than all other types
of fronts.
oCold fronts tend to be associated with the most
violent weather among all types of fronts.

oCold fronts tend to move the farthest while

maintaining their intensity.
oCold fronts tend to be associated with cirrus well
ahead of the front, strong thunderstorms along and
ahead of the front, and a broad area of clouds
immediately behind the front (although fast
moving fronts may be mostly clear behind the
front).
oCold fronts can be associated with squall lines (a
line of strong thunderstorms parallel to and ahead
of the front).

Cold fronts almost always are easier to locate on a

weather map than are warm fronts, primarily
because of the strength of the high pressure system
to the north and west of the cold front compared to
that north of a warm front.
Cold fronts usually bring cooler weather, clearing
skies, and a sharp change in wind direction.

Side View of a Typical Cold Front

Warm fronts are an overrunning of cold air

by warm air. Warm air, being less dense, rises up
over cold air. The frontal boundary between the
warm and cold air has a very gentle slope. The
winds shift with increasing altitude clockwise.

Warm front- a front in which warm air replaces

cooler air at the surface.

Side View of a Typical Warm Front

The transition between the air masses

involved in a warm front is more gradual that
that involved in a cold front due to the gentle
slope of the latter. Whereas the distance
between the leading edge of a cold front (on the
surface) and its leading edge higher in the
atmosphere may be only a few kilometers,
horizontally, the transition between cold air and
warm air in a warm front may occur over
distances up to hundreds of kilometers. As the
frontal boundary of a warm front approaches
(say, from the west) one encounters:

In advance of the front surface winds are

light and variable. Cirrus clouds form
overhead.
As the front approaches, cirrus clouds thicken
into cirrostratus, cirrostratus thicken into
altocumulus and altostratus, creating an
overcast, gray sky.
Altostratus become nimbostratus. Winds
become brisk out of the southeast and the
pressure drops. The air begins to warm slightly
accompanied by stratus clouds and fog.
As the front passes the air warms and the
dew point increases. Winds shift from the

Some of the characteristics of warm fronts

include the following:
oThe slope of a typical warm front is 1:200
(more gentle than cold fronts).
oWarm fronts tend to move slowly.
oWarm fronts are typically less violent than cold
fronts.

oAlthough they can trigger thunderstorms, warm

fronts are more likely to be associated with large
regions of gentle ascent (stratiform clouds and light
to moderate continuous rain).
oWarm fronts are usually preceded by cirrus first
(1000 km ahead), then altostratus or altocumulus
(500 km ahead), then stratus and possibly fog.
oBehind the warm front, skies are relatively clear
(but change gradually).
oWarm fronts are associated with a frontal
inversion (warm air overrunning cooler air).

If a warm front exists on a weather map, it will be

northeast of the cold front and often, to the east of
a surface low pressure area.
Clouds and precipitation are quite prevalent to the
north of the warm front. This results from the fact
that low-level southerly winds in the "warm sector"
of the cyclone rise up and over the cooler, more
dense air at the surface located north of the warm
front. The lifting leads to saturation, cloud
formation, and, ultimately, to some form of
precipitation.

Occluded Fronts occur when a cold front

overtakes a warm front.
There are two types of occluded fronts:
cold occlusions and warm occlusions.
A cold occlusion occurs when the air
behind the front is colder than the air ahead of
the front. A cold occlusion is very similar to a
cold front.
A warm occlusion occurs when the air
behind the front is warmer than the air ahead
of the front. Occluded fronts are usually quite
instrumental weather makers.

Development of an Occluded Front

Because cold fronts move faster than warm fronts,

they can catch up to and overtake their related warm
front. When they do, an occluded front is formed.
Occluded fronts are indicative of mature storm
systems (i.e., those about to dissipate).
The most common type of occlusion in North
America is called a cold-front occlusion and it occurs
when the cold front forces itself under the warm front.
The weather ahead of the cold occlusion is similar to
that of a warm front while that along and behind the
cold occlusion is similar to that of a cold front.

Frequently, two air masses, especially in the

middle latitudes, develop a sharp boundary or interface,
where the temperature difference between them
becomes intensified. Such an area of intensification is
called a frontal zone or a front. The boundary between
the warm and cold air masses always slopes upwards
over the cold air. This is due to the fact that cold air is
much denser than warm air. The sloping of warm air
over the cold air leads to a forced uplifting (
frontal lifting) of the warm air if one air mass is
moving toward the other. In turn, this uplifting causes
condensation to occur and the possibility of
precipitation along the frontal boundary.

Frontal zones where the air masses are not moving against
each other are called stationary fronts. In transitional areas where
there is some air mass movement, cold or warm fronts can develop.
A cold front is the transition zone in the atmosphere where an
advancing cold, dry stable air mass displaces a warm, moist
unstable subtropical air mass. On a weather map, the cold front is
drawn as a solid blue line with triangles. The position of the
triangles shows the direction of frontal movement. Cold fronts move
between 15 to 50 kilometers per hour in a southeast to east direction.
The formation of clouds and precipitation at the frontal zone is
caused by frontal lifting. High altitude cirrus clouds are found well
in advance of the front. Above the surface location of the cold front,
high altitude cirrostratus and middle altitude altocumulus are
common. Precipitation is normally found just behind the front
where frontal lifting has caused the development of towering
cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds.

WEATHER
PHENOMENON

PROR TO THE
PASSNG OF THE
FRONT

TEMPERATURE WARM
ATMOSPHERC DECREASNG
PRESSURE
STEADLY
WNDS

AFTER THE
CONTACT WTH
PASSNG OF
THE FRONT
THE FRONT
COOLNG
SUDDENLY

LEVELNG OFF
THEN
NCREASNG

COLD AND
GETTNG
COLDER

INCREASNG
STEADLY

SOUTH TO

VARABLE AND

WEST TO

SOUTHEAST

GUSTY

NORTHWEST

HEAVY RAN OR
SNOW, HAL

SHOWERS

PRECPTATON SHOWERS

SOMETMES

THEN
CLEARNG

CRRUS AND
CLOUDS

CRROSTRATUS
CHANGNG LATER
TO CUMULUS AND
CUMULONMBUS

CUMULUS AND
CUMULONMBUS

CUMULUS

Weather conditions associated with a cold front.

Atmospheric cross-section of a cold front.

A warm front is the transition zone in the atmosphere where

an advancing warm subtropical, moist air mass replaces a retreating
cold, dry polar air mass. On a weather map, a warm front is drawn
as a solid red line with half-circles. The position of the half-circles
shows the direction of frontal movement. Warm fronts move about
10 kilometers per hour in a northeast direction. This is less than half
the speed of a cold front. The formation of clouds and precipitation
ahead of the frontal zone is caused by gradual frontal lifting. High
altitude cirrus, cirrostratus and middle altitude altostratus clouds
are found well in advance of the front. About 600 kilometers ahead
of the front, nimbostratus clouds occur. These clouds produce
precipitation in the form of snow or rain. Between the nimbostratus
clouds and the surface location of the warm front, low altitude
stratus clouds are found. Finally, a few hundred kilometers behind
the front scattered stratocumulus are common in the lower
troposphere.

WEATHER
PHENOMENON

PROR TO THE
AFTER THE
CONTACT WTH
PASSNG OF THE
PASSNG OF THE
THE FRONT
FRONT
FRONT

TEMPERATURE COOL
ATMOSPHERC DECREASNG
PRESSURE
STEADLY
WNDS
PRECPTATON

SOUTH TO
SOUTHEAST

WARMNG

WARMER THEN

SUDDENLY

LEVELNG OFF

SLGHT RSE
LEVELNG OFF
VARABLE

SHOWERS,
SNOW, SLEET OR LGHT DRZZLE

FOLLOWED BY A
DECREASE

SOUTH TO
SOUTHWEST

NONE

DRZZLE

CRRUS,
CLOUDS

CRROSTRATUS,
ALTOSTRATUS,
NMBOSTRATUS,
AND THEN
STRATUS

CLEARNG WTH
SCATTERED
STRATUS,
SOMETMES
SOMETMES
CUMULONMBUS
SCATTERED
CUMULONMBUS

STRATUS,

Weather conditions associated with a warm front.

Atmospheric cross-section of a warm front.

Occluded fronts are produced when a fast moving

cold front catches and overtakes a slower moving warm
front. Two types of occluded fronts are generally
recognized. A cold type occluded front occurs when the
air behind the front is colder than the air ahead of the
front. When the air behind the front is warmer than the air
ahead of the front a warm type occluded front is
produced. Warm type occlusions are common on the west
coast of continents and generally form when maritime
polar air collides with continental polar or arctic air. Note
that in the occlusion process the invading mild moist air
that was found behind the warm front has been lifted into
the upper troposphere.

Atmospheric cross-section of a occluded front.