PowerPoint Lecture Slides

prepared by
Janice Meeking,
Mount Royal College

C H AP T E R

Chemistry
Comes Alive:
Part A
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Matter

Anything that has mass and occupies space

States of matter:
1. Soliddefinite shape and volume
2. Liquiddefinite volume, changeable shape
3. Gaschangeable shape and volume

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Energy
Capacity to do work or put matter into motion
Types of energy:
Kineticenergy in action
Potentialstored (inactive) energy

PLAY

Animation: Energy Concepts

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Forms of Energy
Chemical energystored in bonds of
chemical substances
Electrical energyresults from movement of
charged particles
Mechanical energydirectly involved in
moving matter
Radiant or electromagnetic energyexhibits
wavelike properties (i.e., visible light,
ultraviolet light, and X-rays)
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Energy Form Conversions

Energy may be converted from one form to
another
Conversion is inefficient because some
energy is lost as heat

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Composition of Matter
Elements
Cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means
Each has unique properties:
Physical properties
Are detectable with our senses, or are
measurable
Chemical properties
How atoms interact (bond) with one another

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Composition of Matter
Atoms
Unique building blocks for each element

Atomic symbol: one- or two-letter chemical

shorthand for each element

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Major Elements of the Human Body

Oxygen (O)
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Nitrogen (N)

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About 96% of body mass

Lesser Elements of the Human Body

About 3.9% of body mass:
Calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), potassium (K),
sulfur (S), sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl),
magnesium (Mg), iodine (I), and iron (Fe)

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Trace Elements of the Human Body

< 0.01% of body mass:
Part of enzymes, e.g., chromium (Cr),
manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn)

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Atomic Structure
Determined by numbers of subatomic
particles
Nucleus consists of neutrons and protons

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Atomic Structure
Neutrons
No charge
Mass = 1 atomic mass unit (amu)

Protons
Positive charge
Mass = 1 amu

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Atomic Structure
Electrons
Orbit nucleus
Equal in number to protons in atom
Negative charge
1/2000 the mass of a proton (0 amu)

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Models of the Atom

Orbital model: current model used by
chemists
Depicts probable regions of greatest electron
density (an electron cloud)
Useful for predicting chemical behavior of
atoms

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Models of the Atom

Planetary modeloversimplified, outdated
model
Incorrectly depicts fixed circular electron paths
Useful for illustrations (as in the text)

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Nucleus

Nucleus

Helium atom

Helium atom

2 protons (p+)
2 neutrons (n0)
2 electrons (e)

2 protons (p+)
2 neutrons (n0)
2 electrons (e)

(a) Planetary model

Proton

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Neutron

(b) Orbital model

Electron

Electron
cloud
Figure 2.1

Identifying Elements
Atoms of different elements contain different
numbers of subatomic particles
Compare hydrogen, helium and lithium (next
slide)

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Proton
Neutron
Electron

Hydrogen (H)
(1p+; 0n0; 1e)

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Helium (He)
(2p+; 2n0; 2e)

Lithium (Li)
(3p+; 4n0; 3e)

Figure 2.2

Identifying Elements
Atomic number = number of protons in
nucleus

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Identifying Elements
Mass number = mass of the protons and
neutrons
Mass numbers of atoms of an element are not
all identical
Isotopes are structural variations of elements
that differ in the number of neutrons they
contain

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Identifying Elements
Atomic weight = average of mass numbers of
all isotopes

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Proton
Neutron
Electron

Hydrogen (1H)
(1p+; 0n0; 1e)

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Deuterium (2H)
(1p+; 1n0; 1e)

Tritium (3H)
(1p+; 2n0; 1e)

Figure 2.3

Radioisotopes
Spontaneous decay (radioactivity)
Similar chemistry to stable isotopes
Can be detected with scanners

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Radioisotopes
Valuable tools for biological research and
medicine
Cause damage to living tissue:
Useful against localized cancers
Radon from uranium decay causes lung
cancer

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Molecules and Compounds

Most atoms combine chemically with other
atoms to form molecules and compounds
Moleculetwo or more atoms bonded
together (e.g., H2 or C6H12O6)
Compoundtwo or more different kinds of
atoms bonded together (e.g., C6H12O6)

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Mixtures
Most matter exists as mixtures
Two or more components physically intermixed

Three types of mixtures

Solutions
Colloids
Suspensions

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Solutions
Homogeneous mixtures
Usually transparent, e.g., atmospheric air or
seawater
Solvent
Present in greatest amount, usually a liquid
Solute(s)
Present in smaller amounts

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Concentration of Solutions
Expressed as
Percent, or parts per 100 parts
Milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl)
Molarity, or moles per liter (M)
1 mole = the atomic weight of an element or
molecular weight (sum of atomic weights) of
a compound in grams
1 mole of any substance contains 6.02
1023 molecules (Avogadros number)
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Colloids and Suspensions

Colloids (emulsions)
Heterogeneous translucent mixtures, e.g.,
cytosol
Large solute particles that do not settle out
Undergo sol-gel transformations

Suspensions:
Heterogeneous mixtures, e.g., blood
Large visible solutes tend to settle out
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Solution

Colloid

Suspension

Solute particles are very

tiny, do not settle out or
scatter light.

Solute particles are larger

than in a solution and scatter
light; do not settle out.

Solute particles are very

large, settle out, and may
scatter light.

Solute
particles

Solute
particles

Example
Mineral water

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Example
Gelatin

Solute
particles

Example
Blood

Figure 2.4

Mixtures vs. Compounds

Mixtures
No chemical bonding between components
Can be separated physically, such as by
straining or filtering
Heterogeneous or homogeneous

Compounds
Can be separated only by breaking bonds
All are homogeneous
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Chemical Bonds
Electrons occupy up to seven electron shells
(energy levels) around nucleus
Octet rule: Except for the first shell which is
full with two electrons, atoms interact in a
manner to have eight electrons in their
outermost energy level (valence shell)

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Chemically Inert Elements

Stable and unreactive
Outermost energy level fully occupied or
contains eight electrons

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(a)

Chemically inert elements

Outermost energy level (valence shell) complete

2e

Helium (He)
(2p+; 2n0; 2e)

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2e

8e

Neon (Ne)
(10p+; 10n0; 10e)

Figure 2.5a

Chemically Reactive Elements

Outermost energy level not fully occupied by
electrons
Tend to gain, lose, or share electrons (form
bonds) with other atoms to achieve stability

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(b)

Chemically reactive elements

Outermost energy level (valence shell) incomplete

1e

Hydrogen (H)
(1p+; 0n0; 1e)
6e
2e

Oxygen (O)
(8p+; 8n0; 8e)
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4e
2e

Carbon (C)
(6p+; 6n0; 6e)
1e
8e
2e

Sodium (Na)
(11p+; 12n0; 11e)
Figure 2.5b

Types of Chemical Bonds

Ionic
Covalent
Hydrogen

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Ionic Bonds
Ions are formed by transfer of valence shell
electrons between atoms
Anions ( charge) have gained one or more
electrons
Cations (+ charge) have lost one or more
electrons

Attraction of opposite charges results in an

ionic bond

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Sodium atom (Na)

(11p+; 12n0; 11e)

Chlorine atom (Cl)

(17p+; 18n0; 17e)

Sodium ion (Na+)

Chloride ion (Cl)

Sodium chloride (NaCl)

(a) Sodium gains stability by losing one electron, and
chlorine becomes stable by gaining one electron.

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(b) After electron transfer, the oppositely

charged ions formed attract each other.

Figure 2.6a-b

Formation of an Ionic Bond

Ionic compounds form crystals instead of
individual molecules
NaCl (sodium chloride)

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CI
Na+

(c) Large numbers of Na+ and Cl ions

associate to form salt (NaCl) crystals.
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Figure 2.6c

Covalent Bonds
Formed by sharing of two or more valence
shell electrons
Allows each atom to fill its valence shell at
least part of the time

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Reacting atoms

Resulting molecules

Molecule of
Hydrogen
Carbon
methane gas (CH4)
atoms
atom
(a) Formation of four single covalent bonds:
carbon shares four electron pairs with four
hydrogen atoms.
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or
Structural
formula
shows
single
bonds.

Figure 2.7a

Reacting atoms

Resulting molecules

+
Oxygen
atom

or
Oxygen
atom

Molecule of
oxygen gas (O2)

(b) Formation of a double covalent bond: Two

oxygen atoms share two electron pairs.

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Structural
formula
shows
double
bond.

Figure 2.7b

Reacting atoms

Resulting molecules

+
Nitrogen
atom

or
Nitrogen
atom

Molecule of
nitrogen gas (N2)

(c) Formation of a triple covalent bond: Two

nitrogen atoms share three electron pairs.

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Structural
formula
shows
triple
bond.

Figure 2.7c

Covalent Bonds
Sharing of electrons may be equal or unequal
Equal sharing produces electrically balanced
nonpolar molecules
CO2

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Figure 2.8a

Covalent Bonds
Unequal sharing by atoms with different
electron-attracting abilities produces polar
molecules
H2O
Atoms with six or seven valence shell
electrons are electronegative, e.g., oxygen
Atoms with one or two valence shell
electrons are electropositive, e.g., sodium

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Figure 2.8b

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Figure 2.9

Hydrogen Bonds
Attractive force between electropositive
hydrogen of one molecule and an
electronegative atom of another molecule
Common between dipoles such as water
Also act as intramolecular bonds, holding a
large molecule in a three-dimensional shape

PLAY

Animation: Hydrogen Bonds

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Hydrogen bond
(indicated by
dotted line)
+
+

(a) The slightly positive ends ( +) of the water

molecules become aligned with the slightly
negative ends ( ) of other water molecules.
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Figure 2.10a

(b) A water strider can walk on a pond because of the high

surface tension of water, a result of the combined
strength of its hydrogen bonds.
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Figure 2.10b

Chemical Reactions
Occur when chemical bonds are formed,
rearranged, or broken
Represented as chemical equations
Chemical equations contain:
Molecular formula for each reactant and
product
Relative amounts of reactants and products,
which should balance
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Examples of Chemical Equations

H + H H2 (hydrogen gas)
(reactants)

(product)

4H + C CH4 (methane)

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Patterns of Chemical Reactions

Synthesis (combination) reactions
Decomposition reactions
Exchange reactions

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Synthesis Reactions
A + B AB
Always involve bond formation
Anabolic

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(a) Synthesis reactions

Smaller particles are bonded
together to form larger,
more complex molecules.
Example
Amino acids are joined together to
form a protein molecule.
Amino acid
molecules

Protein
molecule

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Figure 2.11a

Decomposition Reactions
AB A + B
Reverse synthesis reactions
Involve breaking of bonds
Catabolic

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(b) Decomposition reactions

Bonds are broken in larger
molecules, resulting in smaller,
less complex molecules.
Example
Glycogen is broken down to release
glucose units.
Glycogen

Glucose
molecules

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Figure 2.11b

Exchange Reactions
AB + C AC + B
Also called displacement reactions
Bonds are both made and broken

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(c) Exchange reactions

Bonds are both made and broken
(also called displacement reactions).
Example
ATP transfers its terminal phosphate
group to glucose to form glucose-phosphate.

+
Glucose

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

+
Glucose
phosphate
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Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

Figure 2.11c

Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions

Decomposition reactions: Reactions in which
fuel is broken down for energy
Also called exchange reactions because
electrons are exchanged or shared differently
Electron donors lose electrons and are
oxidized
Electron acceptors receive electrons and
become reduced

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Chemical Reactions
All chemical reactions are either exergonic or
endergonic
Exergonic reactionsrelease energy
Catabolic reactions
Endergonic reactionsproducts contain more
potential energy than did reactants
Anabolic reactions

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Chemical Reactions
All chemical reactions are theoretically reversible
A + B AB
AB A + B

Chemical equilibrium occurs if neither a forward nor

reverse reaction is dominant
Many biological reactions are essentially irreversible
due to
Energy requirements
Removal of products
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Rate of Chemical Reactions

Rate of reaction is influenced by:
temperature rate
particle size rate
concentration of reactant rate

Catalysts: rate without being chemically

changed
Enzymes are biological catalysts

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