Misconceptions in Math & Diagnostic Teaching

Misconceptions in mathematics and
diagnostic teaching
Misconceptions in mathematics and diagnostic teaching.
Section 1
Introduction
 A pupil does not passively receive knowledge from the

environment - it is problematic for knowledge to be transferred
faithfully from one person to another.
 A pupil is an active participant in the construction of his/her

own mathematical knowledge. The construction activity
involves the reception of new ideas and the interaction of these
with the pupils extant ideas.
 Misconceptions arise frequently because a pupil is an active participant in

the construction of his/her own mathematical knowledge via the reception
and the interaction of new ideas within the pupils extant ideas.
Extant idea: If I multiply New Concept: Decimal

two whole numbers I get a numbers and fractions
bigger number
Accommodation
Misconception: If I multiply two fractions I

will always get a bigger number
1) Teaching is more effective when misconceptions are

identified, challenged, and ameliorated.
2) Pupils face internal cognitive distress when some external

idea, process, or rule conflicts with their existing mental schema.
We accept the research evidence which suggests that the

resolutions of these cognitive conflicts through discussion leads
to effective learning.
Section 2
The difference between a mistake and a

misconception in mathematics
Misconceptions in mathematics are not new; accomplished

mathematicians also have misconceptions.
The Renaissance mathematician John Wallis used a naïve method

of induction as follows.
He knew that 1 1 1 1 1
...... < < < <
5 4 3 2 1
He also knew the concept of ordinal numbers. So he (mis) applied this to
all unitary fractions to obtain:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
.......< < < < < < < < < < .......
5 4 3 2 1 0 −1 − 2 − 3
Source: J.F.Scott, The mathematical work of John Wallis, Chelsea, New York, 1981
In the example below a one-off mistake is made by a pupil due to

lack of care or attention to the procedure for decimal addition:
Source: Pearson Publishing

The pupil has shown that

s/he i) understands the
method to find the solution
ii) knows how to open
brackets but carelessly
makes an error in the 2nd
bracket expansion: adding
rather than multiplying.
1+5= 6 instead of 1×5=5
10-3=7 instead of 10×-3=-30
The pupil understands an

algorithm but there is a
computational error due
to carelessness. Instead
of using a calculator, as
allowed in the
examination, the pupil
has, without due care,
used mental methods.
Source: QCA
A common pupil
3 2 5
misconception: The
pupil has transferred the
+ =
algorithm for
5 3 8
multiplying fractions to
adding fractions.
The pupil has misapplied

place value to interpret the
conjunction of a number
and a letter in algebra.
If x = 5, 2x has been
interpreted to be 25.
This is frequently observed.
Source of pupil’s work: QCA
Source : QCA
The pupil has a good understanding of addition of

whole numbers but has misapplied it with respect to
addition of decimal numbers. This is misapplication is
observed repeatedly.
 Mistakes: The pupil understands an algorithm but there is a

computational error due to carelessness. A mistake is normally
a one-off phenomenon.
 Misconceptions: The pupil has misleading ideas or misapplies

concepts or algorithms. A misconception is frequently
observed.
Misconception?
Source: AQA GCSE Higher level text book, Heinemann

 Multiplication is repeated addition.
3 x6=3+3+3+3+3+3
 What problems can this specialization

lead to later?
 Children construct meaning internally by accommodating

new concepts within their existing mental frameworks.
 Thus, unless there is intervention, there is likelihood that the

pupil’s conception may deviate from the intended one.
 Pupils are known to misapply algorithms and rules in

domains where they are inapplicable.
 A surprisingly large proportion of pupils share the same

misconceptions.
A pupil says this is the rule to divide two fractions:
a c a ÷c
÷ =
b d b÷d
a) This is a misconception
b) This is a perfectly good rule
Section 3
Some misconceptions in arithmetic

This a common misconception with pupils.

Working with concrete objects in primary
324
school the pupil is aware that if you have 2 − 162
apples you cannot possibly take 6 apples away. 242
Thus when doing the subtraction in the tens
column they presume that they must remove 2
from 6. This is sometimes called an inversion
error.
Here the pupil has a correct

interpretation and representation
for 1/10: it is indeed 0.10.
However the pupil here probably
has misapplied the convention for
fractions: 6 ½ means 6 + one half.
So the pupil views 6 tenths to
mean 6 + a tenth.
Source: DfES
When multiplying fractions the numerators

are multiplied as are the denominators.
Here the pupil has misapplied the rule to
2 3 5
the addition of fractions. + =
3 4 7
Of course, the theory behind adding fractions is
difficult. A teaching strategy is “ Can you add 2
Euros and 3 Pounds?” After getting agreement that
this is only possible if the denominations are the
same, the teacher can demonstrate that fractions can
only be added if the denominators are the same.
There is (flawed) logic in this

pupil’s answer. The fractions have
different denominators.
i) The pupil has the misconception
that the larger the denominator the
smaller the fraction . There is no
acknowledgment of the role of the
numerator.
ii) The pupil groups them
according to denominator then
orders them in these 4 sets: note
that 3/8 and 5/8 are correctly
placed relative to each other. Source: DfES
Whilst the pupils answer looks like a

mistake there may be an underlying Q. What is 15,473 to the nearest
1000?
misconception: that rounding is
associative. A. 16,000
The pupil may have rounded 15,473
to the nearest 10 first to obtain 15,470
Then may have rounded 15,470 to the
nearest 100 to obtain 15, 500.
Finally may have rounded 15,500 to
the nearest 1000 to obtain 16, 000.
This misconception is not just

Q. A bank offers two savings schemes
related to school children but also
that last 2 years:
with adults.
The first scheme is chosen because i)10% interest in year 1, followed by
20% in year 2.
of the persuasive misconception
that 20% on a larger amount in
ii)20% interest in year 1, followed by
year 2 will yield more money. 10% in year 2.
This misconception is countered
Which scheme is better?
by demonstrating that
multiplication is commutative: A. Scheme i)
1.1 × 1.2 = 1.2 × 1.1
 Children construct meaning internally by accommodating new

concepts within their existing mental frameworks.
 Thus, unless there is intervention, there is likelihood that the

pupil’s conception may deviate from the intended one.
 Pupils are known to misapply algorithms and rules in domains

where they are inapplicable.
 A surprisingly large proportion of pupils share the same

misconceptions.
Section 4
Some misconceptions in algebra

The pupil here has

misapplied the notion of
letters as unknown variables.
Here x, y, and n are indeed
unknown variables – the
pupil decides that, as such,
she or he can make them
each equal to a convenient
number.
Q 1. Solve 3x + 3 = 6x + 1
The unknown x is in the ratio 1: 2
and the pupil misapplies simplifying
ratio into this domain: s/he divides A.3x + 3 = 6x + 1
⇒x + 3 = 2x + 1
the coefficients of x by 3 ⇒2 = x
This misconception is also evident in 3

6 x + 3 3x + 3
this ‘simplification’. =
Beware: The pupil could argue that it is 21 x + 1 x +1
correct and with justification!
The two arithmetic operations are:

First: Multiply by 3
Second: Add 6 Q. I multiply a number x by 3
and add 6 to obtain 27? What is
The pupil inverts both to obtain the number x?
the answer: A.27 divided by 3 = 9
First: Divide by 3 And 9 take away 6 = 3
Second: Subtract 6 So x = 3
This misconception can be

countered by the ‘socks and shoes’
analogy.
In KS3 and KS4, pupils are introduced ( a + b) 2 = a 2 + b 2

to the algebraic analogue of the
distributive law of arithmetic. For a+b = a + b
example,
3( xyz) = 3x3 y3 z
2(a + b) = 2a + 2b
Then there follows the risk of over-
generalising the rule to operations that
are not distributive.
The pupil was initially introduced to Q. Solve x2 - 4x + 3 = 12

quadratic equations by investigating equation
such
as x2 - 4x + 3 = 0 A.x2 - 4x + 3 = 12
Solvable in this manner: ⇒(x – 3)(x – 1) = 12

⇒(x – 3) = 12 or (x – 1) = 12
x2 - 4x + 3 = 0
⇒x = 15 or x = 13
⇒(x – 3)(x – 1) = 0 ........(1)
⇒ (x – 3) = 0 or (x – 1) = 0 ..........(2)
So x = 3 or x = 1.
The pupil misapplies the method to

quadratic equations not equal to zero.
The reasons why (1) leads to (2) needs to be

clearly understood to avoid this misconception.
Section 5
Some misconceptions in geometry

This misconception is frequently

held by pupils as there is Q. Which angle is bigger?
perceptual illusion between a
larger turn and a larger space X
between the two lines making
the angle.
Y
Despite the fact that the 450
angles are drawn on squared
paper, the larger space of angle A. Angle Y is bigger.
Y can lead a pupil to making this
judgement.
Pupils often believe that the

rules of invariance that apply
to algebra also apply to
geometrical shapes. So there
must be equality in all
respects when A becomes B.
Thus leading to
misconception that the
perimeters are the same.
Clearly x+3 and x are

different: this lack of equality
when something is taken
away from an algebraic term
can lead to pupils having this
misconception about
perimeters.
Invariably pupils are conditioned by

the standard triangle presented to Q. Find the area of the right
them when the area of a triangle angled triangle
algorithm is presented: one with
horizontal base and height ‘upwards’ 5 cm 12cm
from the base.

13cm
The pupil assumes the base must be
13 cm and the height ‘appears’ to A.Area = ½ x 5 x 13
= 32.5 sq cm
naturally be 5 cm, thereby leading to
the incorrect answer.
The concept of 2 dimensions can lead to

conflicts with rules in the linear domains Q 1.
of number and linear equations.
3cm A 6cm B
Multiplication by a factor k leads to all
numbers and variables in the combination
being scaled by the same factor k: The two triangles are similar. The
area of triangle A is 8 cm2. Find
E.g. k× (2x+3) = 2kx+3k the area of triangle B.
In the example k = 2 and the area is

multiplied by this factor 2. A. 16 cm2
This misconception is due to lack of
awareness of the quadratic nature of area.
Section 6
Diagnostic teaching
 A pupil does not passively receive knowledge from the

environment - it is not possible for knowledge to be transferred
holistically and faithfully from one person to another.
 A pupil is an active participant in the construction of his/her

own mathematical knowledge. The construction activity
involves the reception of new ideas and the interaction of these
with the pupils extant ideas.
 Because a pupil is an active participant in the construction of his/her own

mathematical knowledge via the reception and the interaction of new ideas
with the pupils extant ideas, misconceptions arise frequently.
New Concept: Decimal Extant idea: If I multiply

numbers and fractions two whole numbers I get a
Accommodation
bigger number
Misconception: If I multiply two fractions I

will always get a bigger number
1) Because misconceptions arise frequently when a pupil’s intellect engages in

the interaction of new ideas with his/her extant ideas, the analysis of
misconceptions is crucially important to teaching and learning.
2) Unless a misconception is identified and ameliorated there is the risk of

cognitive conflict and/or further misconceptions:
Misconception: If I multiply two Cognitive conflict: Find what

fractions I will always get a bigger number multiplied by ½ makes ¼
number
 A teacher cannot correct a misconception unless s/he understands the

reasons behind it. That is, the teacher has to diagnose the faulty interaction
between the pupils extant ideas and the new concept by discussion .
 Once the diagnosis is made then the teacher can challenge or contrast the
misconception with the faithful conception. Research evidence shows that
a pupil is more likely to not only adopt the faithful conception but also
retain the correct understanding by this diagnostic approach.
Misconception: To add two fractions, I Challenge: If the rule to add two

add the numerators and the fractions is to add the numerators and
denominators. the denominators then
3 1 4 1 1 2 1
+ = + = same as
5 2 7 2 2 4 2
but we know answer should be 1
“Traditionally, the teacher with the textbook explains and

demonstrates, while the students imitate; if the student makes
mistakes the teacher explains again. This procedure is not effective
in preventing ... misconceptions or in removing [them].
Diagnostic teaching ..... depends on the student taking much more

responsibility for their own understanding , being willing and able
to articulate their own lines of thought and to discuss them in the
classroom”.
Source: Swann, M : Gaining diagnostic teaching skills: helping students learn

from mistakes and misconceptions, Shell Centre publications
M. Swann, Improving Learning in Mathematics, DFES

 • Lessons focus on known, specific difficulties. Rather

than posing many questions in one session, it is more
effective to focus on a challenging situation or context and
encourage a variety of interpretations to emerge, so that
students can compare and evaluate them.
 • Questions or stimuli are posed or juxtaposed in ways that

create a tension or conflict that needs resolving.
Contradictions arising from conflicting methods or
opinions create awareness that something needs to be
reconsidered, and understandings clarified.
•
 Activities provide opportunities for meaningful feedback to the
student on his or her interpretations. This does not mean providing
superficial information, such as the number of correct or incorrect
answers. Feedback is provided by students using and comparing
results obtained from alternative methods. This usually involves
some form of small group discussion.
• Lessons include time for whole class discussion in which new
ideas and concepts are allowed to emerge. This can be a complex
business and requires non-judgmental sensitivity on the part of the
teacher so that students are encouraged to share tentative ideas in a
non-threatening environment.
A pupil says this is the rule to divide two fractions:
a c a÷c
÷ =
b d b÷ d
Would this pupil conception be a good example for
diagnostic teaching?
It is found that some pupils have the

misconception that the larger the number of
decimal places the smaller the number. Hence
the pupil will group this set according to
whether they have 4, 3, 2 or 1 digit and then try
to order them set-wise.
One way to contrast or challenge this
misconception is to get agreement of the class
via discussion that the order will remain the Source: DfES
same if the numbers are all multiplied by
10000 (this being the multiplier that will make
each decimal a whole number).
This gives: 6250 2500 3753 1250 5000
Ordered: 1250 2500 3753 5000 6250
Decimal order: 0.125, 0.25, 0.3753, 0.5, 0.625
After discussion with a pupil holding a 3

cancelling misconception exhibited 6 x + 2 3x + 2
opposite you could find that it is based =
on a misapplication of simplifying ratio
21 x + 1 x +1
(the x coefficients ate in the ratio 1:3).
6× 2 + 2 3 × 2 + 2
One way to contrast or challenge this is =
to specialise the example with numbers – 2× 2 + 1 2 +1
say with x = 2 – and show that the
resulting equality is incorrect. 14 8
⇒ = ⇒ 2.8 = 2.666 ......
5 3
This pupil likely holds the

misconception that a larger area
implies a larger perimeter …probably
based on the ‘naturalness’ of taking
away.
One way to contrast or challenge this
misconception that a larger area
implies a larger perimeter is to give
the pupil examples where it is not true.
E.g. 2× 2 square and a 1× 3 rectangle.
Alternatively show that any staircase
D made out of rectangle C has
perimeter equal to C by a counting
exercise. Source: DfES
Importance of dealing with misconceptions

1) Teaching is more effective when misconceptions are
identified, challenged, and ameliorated.
2) Pupils face internal cognitive distress when some external

idea, process, or rule conflicts with their existing mental schema.
3) Research evidence suggests that the resolutions of these

cognitive conflicts through discussion leads to effective learning.
Dealing with misconceptions:
Diagnosis: Get pupils to explain how they came to their answers

or rules.
Amelioration: If there is a misconception challenge it or contrast

it with the faithful conception.

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Misconceptions in mathematics and

 A pupil does not passively receive knowledge from the

 A pupil is an active participant in the construction of his/her

 Misconceptions arise frequently because a pupil is an active participant in

Extant idea: If I multiply New Concept: Decimal

Misconception: If I multiply two fractions I

1) Teaching is more effective when misconceptions are

2) Pupils face internal cognitive distress when some external

We accept the research evidence which suggests that the

The difference between a mistake and a

Misconceptions in mathematics are not new; accomplished

The Renaissance mathematician John Wallis used a naïve method

In the example below a one-off mistake is made by a pupil due to

Source: Pearson Publishing

The pupil has shown that

The pupil understands an

The pupil has misapplied

The pupil has a good understanding of addition of

 Mistakes: The pupil understands an algorithm but there is a

 Misconceptions: The pupil has misleading ideas or misapplies

Source: AQA GCSE Higher level text book, Heinemann

 Multiplication is repeated addition.

 What problems can this specialization

 Children construct meaning internally by accommodating

 Thus, unless there is intervention, there is likelihood that the

 Pupils are known to misapply algorithms and rules in

 A surprisingly large proportion of pupils share the same

A pupil says this is the rule to divide two fractions:

Some misconceptions in arithmetic

This a common misconception with pupils.

Here the pupil has a correct

When multiplying fractions the numerators

There is (flawed) logic in this

Whilst the pupils answer looks like a

This misconception is not just

 Children construct meaning internally by accommodating new

 Thus, unless there is intervention, there is likelihood that the

 Pupils are known to misapply algorithms and rules in domains

 A surprisingly large proportion of pupils share the same

Some misconceptions in algebra

The pupil here has

This misconception is also evident in 3

The two arithmetic operations are:

This misconception can be

In KS3 and KS4, pupils are introduced ( a + b) 2 = a 2 + b 2

The pupil was initially introduced to Q. Solve x2 - 4x + 3 = 12

Solvable in this manner: ⇒(x – 3)(x – 1) = 12

The pupil misapplies the method to

The reasons why (1) leads to (2) needs to be

Some misconceptions in geometry

This misconception is frequently

Pupils often believe that the

Clearly x+3 and x are

Invariably pupils are conditioned by

from the base.

The concept of 2 dimensions can lead to

In the example k = 2 and the area is

 A pupil does not passively receive knowledge from the

 A pupil is an active participant in the construction of his/her

 Because a pupil is an active participant in the construction of his/her own

New Concept: Decimal Extant idea: If I multiply

Misconception: If I multiply two fractions I

1) Because misconceptions arise frequently when a pupil’s intellect engages in

2) Unless a misconception is identified and ameliorated there is the risk of

Misconceptions in Math & Diagnostic Teaching

Misconceptions in Math & Diagnostic Teaching