Fundamentals of Renewable Energy

ME 4490
Prof. E. Ilksoy

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO
RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable Energy

Energy Sources

1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-7

FOSSIL FUELS: OIL, COAL AND NATURAL GAS

NUCLEAR ENERGY
THE SOLAR RESOURCE
THE WIND RESOURCE
GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES
HYDROELECTRIC RESOURCES
BIOMASS AND BIOFUEL RESOURCES

( Source: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Reproduced by

permission.)

Energy Consumption in US in 2012

Energy Map by source and

consumption

Some Energy Statistics

The US uses of
the worlds energy
The US pays more
than
$5 billion for
imported oil
each month

Present-day energy use:

World energy supplies

Global Energy Consumption over

decades by Different Sources

Energy Consumption of different

sources by Regions

Global Energy Consumption by

Regions

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Fossil Fuels: oil, coal and natural gas

Major fossil fuels are:
Coal
Petroleum
Natural Gas

Fatman73/Fotolia

All fossil fuels are considered to be nonrenewable resources because they are
being consumed at a much faster rate than
they are replenished.

Fossil Fuels: oil, coal and natural gas

Coal is a hydrocarbon that formed from
ancient plant life that was buried and
subjected to heat and pressure. It formed
into a organic peat in a process called
diagenesis.
Types of coal:
Heating value
lignite

subbituminous

bituminous

Moisture content

anthracite

1-1 Fossil Fuels: oil, coal and natural gas

Natural gas is trapped underground in
reservoirs. The primary constituent of
natural gas is methane, the simplest
hydrocarbon. The chemical formula for
methane is CH4.
The chemical reaction that occurs
in burning methane is:
CH 4 2O 2 CO 2 2H 2O Energy
The equation shows that for one
molecule of CH4, two molecules of O2
combine with it to form one molecule
of CO2 and two molecules of water.

1-1 Fossil Fuels: oil, coal and natural gas

Petroleum (oil) was formed from organic
sediments in a two step-process:
1. Compaction and heat into a waxy
material known as kerogen and a
black tar-like material called bitumen.
2. Further chemical and physical change
in a process called catagenesis.

Fossil Fuels: oil, coal and natural gas

Environmental effects of fossil fuels are:

Release of CO2 and pollutants such as sulfur,

arsenic, lead, and mercury
Acidification of lakes and streams from sulfur dioxide

15

Leonid Ikan/Fotolia

Issues with obtaining fuels including spills and ash

releases.

Fossil Fuels: oil, coal and natural gas

Another environmental disaster that has not
received much attention is coal seam fires.
These underground fires have been started by
both natural means and humans but are
estimated to account for 3% of the worlds
industrial carbon emissions may come from
these fires.
One fire in India has been burning since 1916 and has consumed an
estimated 37 million tons of coal. Fires like this have a huge impact on
pollution, land subsidence, and destruction of wildlife habitat.

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2015 by Pearson Higher Education,

Problem & Opportunity

Several Problems
Air & water pollution
Health effects of pollution
Oil depletion/ imports
Global warming from CO2

One Solution
Renewable energy sources
cause minimal pollution,
dont cause global warming
and are locally available

ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

The conversion of energy from one form to another often affects the environment
and the air we breathe in many ways, and thus the study of energy is not complete
without considering its impact on the environment.
Pollutants emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels are responsible for smog,
acid rain, and global warming.
The environmental pollution has reached such high levels that it became a serious
threat to vegetation, wild life, and human health.

Motor vehicles are the largest source of

air pollution.
Energy conversion processes are often
accompanied by environmental
pollution.

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Ozone and Smog

Smog: Made up mostly of ground-level ozone (O3), but it also contains numerous other
chemicals, including carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter such as soot and dust,
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene, butane, and other hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides react in the presence of sunlight on hot calm days to
form ground-level ozone.
Ozone irritates eyes and damages the air sacs in the lungs where oxygen and carbon
dioxide are exchanged, causing eventual hardening of this soft and spongy tissue.
It also causes shortness of breath, wheezing, fatigue, headaches, and nausea, and
aggravates respiratory problems such as asthma.

The other serious pollutant in smog is carbon monoxide,

which is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas.
It is mostly emitted by motor vehicles.
It deprives the bodys organs from getting enough
oxygen by binding with the red blood cells that would
otherwise carry oxygen. It is fatal at high levels.
Suspended particulate matter such as dust and soot are
emitted by vehicles and industrial facilities. Such
particles irritate the eyes and the lungs.

Ground-level ozone, which is the primary component

of smog, forms when HC and NOx react in the
presence of sunlight in hot calm days.

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Acid Rain

The sulfur in the fuel reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide (SO2), which is an
air pollutant.
The main source of SO2 is the electric power plants that burn high-sulfur coal.
Motor vehicles also contribute to SO2 emissions since gasoline and diesel fuel
also contain small amounts of sulfur.

The sulfur oxides and nitric oxides react

with water vapor and other chemicals
high in the atmosphere in the presence of
sunlight to form sulfuric and nitric acids.

The acids formed usually dissolve in the

suspended water droplets in clouds or
fog.

These acid-laden droplets, which can be

as acidic as lemon juice, are washed
from the air on to the soil by rain or
snow. This is known as acid rain.

Sulfuric acid and nitric acid are formed

when sulfur oxides and nitric oxides react
with water vapor and other chemicals high
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in the atmosphere in the presence of
sunlight.

The Greenhouse
Effect: Global
Warming

The greenhouse effect on earth.

Greenhouse effect: Glass allows the solar

radiation to enter freely but blocks the
infrared radiation emitted by the interior
surfaces. This causes a rise in the interior
temperature as a result of the thermal
energy buildup in a space (i.e., car).
The surface of the earth, which warms up
during the day as a result of the
absorption of solar energy, cools down at
night by radiating part of its energy into
deep space as infrared radiation.
Carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor, and
trace amounts of some other gases such
as methane and nitrogen oxides act like a
blanket and keep the earth warm at night
by blocking the heat radiated from the
earth. The result is global warming.
These gases are called greenhouse
gases, with CO2 being the primary
component.
CO2 is produced by the burning of fossil
fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
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A 1995 report: The earth has already warmed about 0.5C during the last
century, and they estimate that the earths temperature will rise another 2C
by the year 2100.
A rise of this magnitude can cause severe changes in weather patterns with
storms and heavy rains and flooding at some parts and drought in others,
major floods due to the melting of ice at the poles, loss of wetlands and
coastal areas due to rising sea levels, and other negative results.
Improved energy efficiency, energy conservation, and using renewable
energy sources help minimize global warming.

The average car produces several times its

weight in CO2 every year (it is driven 20,000
km a year, consumes 2300 liters of
gasoline, and produces 2.5 kg of CO2 per
liter).

Renewable energies such as wind are

called green energy since they emit
no pollutants or greenhouse gases.
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Carbon dioxide emission from fossil

fuels over time

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Pollution

US power plants emit 18 million tons of SO2 per year +

NOx, particulates, carbon monoxide, mercury and lead

Energy production & use also contribute to Water

pollution

Some regions has been in violation of federal air quality

standards since they began in the 1970s

Global Warming
Throughout history, the earth has been
much colder, and at times warmer, than it is
now
But climate change is occurring 100s of times
faster than these natural changes
CO2, CH4, N2O, O3 and soot all cause warming

Global average air temperature has risen

1F in the past 50 years
But, this has already resulted in melting ice
sheets, migration of animals and more
severe weather

Fossil fuels and climate change

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Fossil fuels and climate change

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The Greenhouse Effect

Glass has a transparent window in the wavelength range 0.3 m < < 3 m in which
over 90% of solar radiation is emitted. The entire radiation emitted by surfaces at room
temperature falls in the infrared region ( > 3 m).
Glass allows the solar radiation to enter but does not allow the infrared radiation from the
interior surfaces to escape. This causes a rise in the interior temperature as a result of
the energy buildup in the car.
This heating effect, which is due to the nongray characteristic of glass (or clear plastics),
is known as the greenhouse effect.

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Temperature increase over the years

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Whats the Alternative?

And whats the hold up?

Renewable energy generally

cost more than conventional
fossil fuel energy systems

Solar 11 - 40 /kWh
depending on the
technology

Wind 5 - 15 /kWh from large

wind turbines

But what if you consider the big picture?

Reasons for Renewable Energy

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Renewable energy sources

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Renewable energy sources

33

Sustainable Energy

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There are lots of Alternatives

Nuclear
Hydroelectric
Wind
Solar
Wave
Tidal
Geothermal
Bio-mass

Nuclear energy

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Nuclear Energy
Currently, all reactors that produce useful energy use the fission process
in which the release of neutrons keeps the process going in a chain
reaction.

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Nuclear Energy
A basic pressurized water reactor (PWR) uses the standard Rankine cycle
to convert heat energy to mechanical motion.

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Nuclear Energy

An artist rendition of a
Tokamak reaction chamber
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http://home.doe.gov/articles/lab-breakthrough-neutron-science-fusion-mission

Fusion reactors offer promise for the future

with unlimited fuel (from water) but have been
notoriously difficult to build.

Nuclear Energy
Environmental effects for all fission reactors
include potential and actual accidents and
radioactive waste disposal requiring very long
term storage.

Source: NREL

General

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General

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Solar Energy: Source of Sustainable

Energy

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Passive Solar
Uses sun angles,
shading and
thermal storage
Daylighting is using
natural sunlight
instead of electric
lights

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Solar Electric

Solar Photovoltaic (PV)

panels generate electricity
directly from sunlight with
special materials

48

ar Thermal
Heat from the sun can be
used to heat water, houses,
pools, in industry and to
generate electricity

Solar Cookers
Many different
designs

Can improve health &

reduce deforestation in
developing countries

Solar Cars?
Hybrid and Electric
cars are coming
Why not solar
charge them?

ATMOSPHERIC AND SOLAR RADIATION

Atmospheric radiation: The radiation energy emitted or
reflected by the constituents of the atmosphere.
The energy of the sun is due to the continuous
fusion reaction during which two hydrogen
atoms fuse to form one atom of helium.
Therefore, the sun is essentially a nuclear
reactor, with temperatures as high as
40,000,000 K in its core region.
The temperature drops to about 5800 K in the
outer region of the sun, called the convective
zone, as a result of the dissipation of this
energy by radiation.
Total solar irradiance Gs:
The solar energy reaching
the earths atmosphere is
called the

Solar constant: The total solar irradiance. It

represents the rate at which solar energy is
incident on a surface normal to the suns rays
at the outer edge of the atmosphere when the
earth is at its mean distance from the sun

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The value of the total solar irradiance can be used

to estimate the effective surface temperature of
the sun from the requirement that

The sun can be treated

as a blackbody at a
temperature of 5780 K.

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The solar energy incident on a

surface on earth is considered to
consist of direct and diffuse parts.

Direct solar radiation GD: The part of solar

radiation that reaches the earths surface
without being scattered or absorbed by the
atmosphere.
Diffuse solar radiation Gd: The scattered
radiation is assumed to reach the earths
surface uniformly from all directions.
The total solar energy incident on the unit
area of a horizontal surface on the ground is

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it is found convenient in radiation calculations to treat the atmosphere as a

blackbody at some lower fictitious temperature that emits an equivalent amount
of radiation energy.
This fictitious temperature is called the effective sky temperature Tsky.
The radiation emission from the atmosphere to the earths surface is

The value of Tsky depends on the atmospheric

conditions. It ranges from about 230 K for cold,
clear-sky conditions to about 285 K for warm,
cloudy-sky conditions.

Net rate of radiation heat transfer to a surface

exposed to solar and atmospheric radiation

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The absorption and emission of radiation by the

elementary gases such as H2, O2, and N2 at moderate
temperatures are negligible, and a medium filled with
these gases can be treated as a vacuum in radiation
analysis.
The absorption and emission of gases with larger
molecules such as H2O and CO2, however, can be
significant and may need to be considered when
considerable amounts of such gases are present in a
medium.
For example, a 1-m-thick layer of water vapor at 1 atm
pressure and 100C emits more than 50 percent of the
energy that a blackbody would emit at the same
temperature.
The radiation properties of surfaces are quite
different for the incident and emitted radiation, and
the surfaces cannot be assumed to be gray.
Instead, the surfaces are assumed to have two sets
of properties: one for solar radiation and another for
infrared radiation at room temperature.

57

What we call renewable energy is usually

nothing more than the manifestation of
solar energy in different forms.
Such energy sources include wind energy,
hydroelectric power, ocean thermal
energy, ocean wave energy, and wood.
For example, no hydroelectric power plant
can generate electricity year after year
unless the water evaporates by absorbing
solar energy and comes back as a rainfall
to replenish the water source.
Although solar energy is sufficient to meet
the entire energy needs of the world,
currently it is not economical to do so
because of the low concentration of solar
energy on earth and the high capital cost
of harnessing it.

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The Solar Resource

The solar spectrum includes a visible region and energy above and below
the visible region.
At the top of the atmosphere, the spectrum is:

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The Solar Resource

The solar constant is the energy per square
meter per day at the outer edge of the
atmosphere. The amount that reaches the
earths surface is less because some is
absorbed and some is reflected.

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The Solar Resource

The radiation reaching the earth's surface is
given in three different ways:
1. Global horizontal irradiance (GHI) is the total
amount of shortwave radiation received on a
horizontal surface
2. Direct normal irradiance (DNI) is the portion of GHI
that comes in a straight line from the sun
3. Diffuse horizontal irradiance (DHI) is that portion of
radiation that arrives at the surface from indirect
paths.
The GHI value includes both the direct and
diffuse irradiance. Both direct radiation and
diffuse irradiance is useful for solar
applications like flat plate collectors, but only
61
direct radiation can be focused using

The Solar Resource

Source: NREL

A map of the average annual solar resource

for the U.S.:

The Solar Resource

Source: Courtesy of 3TIER.

A map of the average annual solar resource

for the world:

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The Solar Resource

Environmental effects of solar energy are:

Manufacturing including certain hazardous materials

Disposal of panels when life of the product is over
Certain types of solar installations have water requirements
Land use issues
Effect on wildlife

64
Copyright 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved

65

Wind
Wind turbines modern windmills
have become quite efficient and cost
effective in windy areas

The Wind Resource

Global patterns of winds are driven by three primary air cells in each
hemisphere: The tropical cell, the mid-latitude cell, and the polar cell.

When the earths

rotation is taken into
account, the winds are
deflected by the
Coriolis force that adds
an east-west
component to the
movement of the air in
the global air cells.
In the U.S., the best wind resources are on the coasts,
the Great Lakes and the Midwest as shown in the
67
following slide:

Source: NREL

The Wind Resource

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The Wind Resource

Source:3TIER

A map of the wind resource for the world:

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1-4 The Wind Resource

Offshore winds are generally higher because of the clear path free of
buildings and land masses.

The offshore resource is

frequently near population
centers, minimizing
transmission issues.

Source: NREL

Some countries with the best offshore wind

resources are the UK, Ireland, Italy, the
Philippines, Japan, and parts of the United
States.

The Wind Resource

Environmental issues:

Land use and visual eyesore

Structures may create hazard for small
aircraft
Noise
Bird strikes
Additional power line infrastructure

Geothermal & Bio-mass

Geothermal Resources
Geothermal is heat generated within the earth primarily from radioactive
decay. The best resources are along tectonic boundaries where it can be
used for driving steam generators and provide baseline power.

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Low quality geothermal

heat is available in most
parts of the world and
can be used for
geothermal heat pumps
(GHP) to provide heat or
air conditioning. These
are systems that work on
a basic refrigeration
cycle using heat in the
ground as a basic
resource.

Source: NREL

Geothermal Resources

Geothermal Resources
Plate tectonics is a geological theory that
explains how the earths surface moves and
changes over time. The outer surface of the
earth is divided into plates that form the
lithosphere. The best spots for geothermal
energy tend to be near plate boundaries.

Geothermal Resources

Source: NREL

In the U.S., the best geothermal sites tend to be in the west as shown on
the geothermal resource map.

Geothermal Resources
Environmental effects of Geothermal plants

Source: NREL

Low gaseous emissions including a small

amount of CO2
Can have high volume of water
requirements
Water injection into ground to replace
ground water
Very minor earthquakes (microquakes)

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Renewable Energy Systems
David Buchla | Thomas Kissell | Thomas Floyd

Copyright 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

All Rights Reserved

77

Biomass and Biofuel Resources

Biomass fuels are fuels derived from organic matter
and they comprise the largest segment of the renewable energy sector.
Examples of biofuels are:

wood chips
waste from the paper industry
agricultural waste
organic and food waste
various crops grown for fuels

One use for biofuels is to

co-fire it with coal in
electrical power stations
to alleviate some of their
CO2 emissions.

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Biomass and Biofuel Resources

Source: NREL

For the U.S., the crop residue resource map is:

1-7 Biomass and Biofuel Resources

Poet Bio Refining

Liquid biofuels include ethanol, produced from grains such as corn. An

ethanol plant:

An ethanol plant. Principle steps are:1) offloading 2) grinding

3) treatment with sulfuric acid to decompose into sugars
4) fermentation 5) storage of fuel

Biodiesel is another biofuel made from vegetable oil, animal fat, or

cooking grease that is combined with alcohol.

Biomass and Biofuel Resources

Reduced biodiversity and loss of wildlife
habitat particularly as farmers plant
more pristine lands for energy crops
Increased water requirements for
irrigation and processing, particularly
with ethanol production
Increased use of pesticides and
fertilizers which has significantly
increased nitrate levels in rivers and
streams and affected drinking water
Replacement of farmland that was used
There are some positive benefits for growing certain biofuels,
forwith
food
crops
production
of
especially
switch
grass with
and tree
farming,
ethanol.
Renewable Energy Systems
David Buchla | Thomas Kissell | Thomas Floyd

Copyright 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

All Rights Reserved

Source: NREL

Environmental effects of energy crops:

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Water Energy
Hydro-electric, wave, tide

Hydroelectric Resources
Hydroelectric resources broadly covers any source that converts the
energy in moving or falling water into electricity. As such, the water is
considered to be a prime mover.

Water is used to generate

electricity primarily by trapping it
behind dams and releasing it to
turn turbines as it is needed.
Flowing water in rivers, streams,
and tides are also used to a
smaller extent.

91

Source: http://www.usbr.gov/mp/2010_accomp_rpt/highlights/index.htm

Hydroelectric Resources
The location of hydroelectric power plants in the U.S. principally is in
mountainous regions.

Hydroelectric Resources
In addition to large storage dams, there are dams used in rivers in systems
called run of the river systems (ROR). In a few coastal locations, a tidal
barrage dam is used to trap water from tides and generate power by
releasing it through turbines.

Source: NREL

Ocean waves and natural current from tides

have been used to generate power in some
areas, but overall have been a small part of
the energy mix.

Hydroelectric Resources
There is a tremendous reservoir of low quality heat in the oceans. Warm
surface waters can boil ammonia, which is condensed by deeper cold
water to drive a turbine.

This technology is called Ocean

Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
and there is interest in developing the
technology.

Hydroelectric Resources
Environmental issues with dams:

Silting problems filling in reservoirs and

depriving farmlands of the renewing
effects of silt.
Water quality and flow are affected
Loss of fish habitat and upsetting natural
migration patterns
Loss of scenic and wild rivers and loss of
useful land for reservoirs.

A Future Hydrogen Economy?

Solar energy can
split water into
hydrogen & oxygen
A fuel cell can make
electricity from
hydrogen and
oxygen, making
water
A completely clean,
renewable cycle

2 Last Thoughts
It has been
estimated that we
can improve the
way we use
energy by a factor
of 4!

Selected Key Terms

Biomass

Catagenesis

Diagenesis

Diffuse
horizontal
irradiance

Organic material that is commonly used for fuels

for heating, power generation or making liquid
fuels useful in transportation
The cracking process that results in the
conversion of kerogens into hydrocarbons
including natural gas and oil.
The process of converting constituents to a
different product through application of heat and
pressure.
The portion of global horizontal irradiance that
comes in a indirectly (scattered radiation) from the
sun.

Selected Key Terms

Direct
normal
irradiance
Ethanol
Kerogen
Solar
constant

The portion of global horizontal irradiance that

comes in a straight line from the sun.
The primary biofuel used as a gasoline additive
and is a type of alcohol.
A mixture of organic chemical that are part of the
organic matter in sedimentary rocks.
The power emitted by the sun that falls on 1
square meter. It is generally cited as 1368 W/m2.

true/false quiz

1. The primary use of coal is for

industrial heat.

true/false quiz

2. The formation of coal into an

organic peat is called
diagenesis.

true/false quiz

3. Burning any fossil fuel releases

CO2.

true/false quiz

4. The major issue with nuclear

power is the large amount of
cooling water required.

true/false quiz

5. The fuel for future fusion

reactors is CO2.

true/false quiz

6. The solar spectrum refers only

to visible light.

true/false quiz

7. The Coriolis force adds an east-west

component to the movement of the
air in the global air cells.

true/false quiz

8. Hydroelectric resources are

concentrated in mountainous
regions.

true/false quiz

9. Geothermal heat pumps cannot

be used for cooling.

true/false quiz

10. Biomass burning can help

electrical power stations to
alleviate some of their CO2
emissions

true/false quiz

Answers:
1.F
2.T
3.T
4.F
5.F

6.F
7.T
8.T
9.F
10. T

Basic Concepts
Force, Energy, Power
Energy Conservation: First Law of
Thermodynamics
Forms of Energy
Conversion and efficiency

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Force, energy and power

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Force, energy and power

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Energy conservation: The First Law

of Thermodynamics
Total quantity of energy remains constant during
transformation from one form to another.
This principle is known as first law of
thermodynamics.
eg., energy transformation from potential (mgh)
to kinetic (0.5mv^2)
Thermal energy or internal energy that has to do
with vibration of atoms (kinetic energy of atoms.
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Gravitational and electrical energy

115

Thermal Radiation Carried by

Electromagnetic Waves

116

Conversion and efficiency

When we convert energy from one form to another, the
useful output is never as much as the input. The ratio of
the useful output to the required input (usually expressed
as a percentage) is called the efficiency of the process.
The difference between the high and low conversion
efficiencies is because the latter involve more wasted
heat while generating mechanical or electric work.
the essential message of the Second Law of
Thermodynamics: that there is necessarily a limit to the
efficiency of any heat engine (Carnot efficiency).
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