Galaxies in the Universe

Galaxies: From Here to the Horizon

Thus the explorations of space end on a
note of uncertainty Eventually, we reach
the dim boundary the utmost limits of
our telescopes. There we measure
shadows, and we search among ghostly
errors of measurement for landmarks that
are scarcely more substantial.
Edwin Hubble (1889 1953)
American astronomer

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

1.
2.
3.
4.

How far away are galaxies?

Do all galaxies have spiral arms?
Are galaxies isolated objects?
Is the universe contracting, unchanging in
size, or expanding?

In this chapter you will discover

galaxies

are categorized by their shapes

processes that produce galaxies of different
shapes
galaxies are found in clusters that contain huge
amounts of dark matter
why clusters of galaxies form in superclusters
how some galaxies merge and others devour
their neighbors
the universe is changing size

Final Exam Essay Questions

Essay

Questions on the final relating to this

chapter include:
What kinds of galaxies are there in the
universe? How do we measure distances to
galaxies?
What is Hubble's law? What does it tell us
about the evolution of the universe?
What is the missing mass problem? What
does it mean about the evolution of the
universe?

Process of Science
Observe

galaxies at all distances

Research properties, similarities, patterns
Hypotheses:
Why

are they different?

When did they form?
How do they evolve?
Experiments?
Look

over distance (and time!)

Put into a timeline

Spirals

Variations?

Spirals

Variations?
Size of nucleus, amount of winding,
fluffiness

Spirals

have a disk component and bulge & halo

disk contains an ISM of gas & dust
relative sizes of bulge/disk & amount of gas/dust vary
appear white because they contain both blue & red stars

Spirals Edge-on

Galaxies dont seem to wind up

over time!

Spiral Arms as Density Traffic Jams

Barred Spirals

Elliptical Galaxies

only have a spheroidal component; no disk

very little gas/dust, little active star formation
appear red because they contain mostly red stars

Elliptical Galaxy Variations

Size of central nucleus

Degree of flatness or ellipticity

Irregular Galaxy Variations

none of the above; neither spiral nor elliptical

appear white & dusty: lots of gas & dust
have more in common w/ disk component of
spirals
distant galaxies more likely to be irregular
Somore common when the Universe was

Edwin Hubble
(1889-1953)
Discovered

Cepheid variables
in Andromeda galaxy.
Calculated distance to
Andromeda galaxy.
2.2

million light years

not in the Milky Way
Developed

a classification
scheme for galaxies.

Hubbles Classification System

Milton Humason
(1891-1972)
Mule-team

driver who
dropped out of 8th grade.
Took spectra & measured
the redshifts of galaxies.
Worked w/ Hubble, who
measured the distances to
those same galaxies.
They plotted distance vs.
velocity

The Cosmic Distance Ladder

The Cosmic Distance Ladder

Parallax to
Nearby Stars

~500 light years

The Cosmic Distance Ladder

Spectroscopic
Parallax to
Stars in Galaxy

~30,000 light years

The Cosmic Distance Ladder

Calibrated
Variable Stars
in Galaxy

~50,000 light years

The Cosmic Distance Ladder

Calibrated Variable
Stars, Supernovae in
Nearby Galaxies

~10 milion light years

The Cosmic Distance Ladder

Calibrated Variable Stars,
Supernovae, Most massive
galaxies in Distant
Clusters

~500 million to 5 billion

light years

The Cosmic Distance Ladder

Hubbles Law

~10 billion light years

Cosmic Distance Ladder!

Hubbles Law

Distance of
Galaxies is
indicated by
REDSHIFT of star
light.

Hubbles Law: Velocity of Distant Galaxies

Increases with Distance

Farther Galaxies move

away from us faster

Closer Galaxies move

away from us

Hubbles Constant indicates AGE of Universe!

Hubbles Law:
Velocity = H0 x Distance

Hubbles Constant Tells

Age:
H0 = Velocity/Distance =
1 / Time

Galactic Cannibalism

More Evidence of Dark Matter

Gravitational Lenses Suggest Dark Matter

Summary of Key Ideas

Types of Galaxies

The Hubble classification system groups galaxies into

four major types: spiral, barred spiral, elliptical, and
irregular.
The arms of spiral and barred spiral galaxies are sites of
active star formation.
According to the theory of self-propagating star
formation, spiral arms of flocculent galaxies are caused
by the births and deaths of stars over extended regions
of a galaxy. Differential rotation of a galaxy stretches the
star-forming regions into elongated arches of stars and
nebulae that we see as spiral arms.

Types of Galaxies

According to the spiral density wave theory, spiral arms

of grand-design galaxies are caused by density waves.
The gravitational field of a spiral density wave
compresses the interstellar clouds that pass through it,
thereby triggering the formation of stars, including OB
associations, which highlight the arms.
Elliptical galaxies contain much less interstellar gas and
dust than do spiral galaxies; little star formation occurs in
elliptical galaxies.

Clusters and Superclusters

Galaxies group into clusters rather than being randomly

scattered through the universe.
A rich cluster contains at least a thousand galaxies; a
poor cluster may contain only a few dozen up to a
thousand galaxies. A regular cluster has a nearly
spherical shape with a central concentration of galaxies;
in an irregular cluster, the distribution of galaxies is
asymmetrical.
Our Galaxy is a member of a poor, irregular cluster,
called the Local Group.
Rich, regular clusters contain mostly elliptical and
lenticular galaxies; irregular clusters contain more spiral
and irregular galaxies. Giant elliptical galaxies are often
found near the centers of rich clusters.

Clusters and Superclusters

No cluster of galaxies has an observable mass large

enough to account for the observed motions of its
galaxies; a large amount of unobserved mass must be
present between the galaxies.
Hot intergalactic gases emit X rays in rich clusters.
When two galaxies collide, their stars initially pass each
other, but their interstellar gas and dust collide violently,
either stripping the gas and dust from the galaxies or
triggering prolific star formation. The gravitational effects
of a galactic collision can cast stars out of their galaxies
into intergalactic space.
Galactic mergers occur; a large galaxy in a rich cluster
may grow steadily through galactic cannibalism,
sometimes producing a giant elliptical galaxy.

Superclusters in Motion

A simple linear relationship exists between the distance

from Earth to galaxies in other superclusters and the
redshifts of those galaxies (a measure of the speed at
which they are receding from us). This relationship is
the Hubble law: recessional velocity = Ho x distance,
where Ho is the Hubble constant.
Astronomers use standard candlesCepheid variables,
the brightest supergiants, globular clusters, H II regions,
supernovae in a galaxy, and the Tully-Fisher relation
to calculate intergalactic distances. Because of
difficulties in measuring the distances to remote
galaxies, the value of the Hubble constant, Ho, is not
known with complete certainty.

Key Terms
barred spiral galaxy
cluster (of galaxies)
elliptical galaxy
galactic merger
gravitational lensing
Hubble classification
Hubble constant
Hubble flow
Hubble law
intergalactic gas
irregular cluster (of galaxies)
irregular galaxy
lenticular galaxy
Local Group

poor cluster (of galaxies)

regular cluster (of galaxies)
rich cluster (of galaxies)
spiral density wave
spiral galaxy
standard candle
starburst galaxy
supercluster (of galaxies)
trailing-arm spiral galaxy
Tully-Fisher relation

WHAT DID YOU THINK?

Are

most of the stars in spiral galaxies

located in their spiral arms?
No. The spiral arms contain only 5% more
stars than the regions between the arms.

WHAT DID YOU THINK?

Do

all galaxies have spiral arms?

No. Galaxies may be either spiral, barred
spiral, elliptical, or irregular. Only spirals
and barred spirals have arms.

WHAT DID YOU THINK?

Are

galaxies isolated objects?

No. Galaxies are grouped in clusters, and
clusters are grouped in superclusters.

WHAT DID YOU THINK?

Is

the universe contracting, unchanging in

size, or expanding?
The universe is expanding.