Introduction to Measurement

Science
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Surveying for Engineers

Measurement Science Introduction

Principles apply to any activity relying on measurements
Considerations

Surveying measurements

Observations

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Overview
Basic principles of measurements
Subsequent use of measurements
Planning for measurements
Units of measurements

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Measurements
Single measurement

Issues

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Measurements
Methods for increasing confidence

Expressions of quality

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Precision
Understanding precision

Degree of precision depends on

Express precision using statistics

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Variance and Standard Deviation

Purpose
Indicate measurement spread

Formulae
variance: s 2

n 1

2
standard deviation: s s

Example
Set A: 2.3 m, 2.4 m, 2.5 m; s2 = 0.01 m2, s = 0.1 m
Set B: 2.1 m, 2.3 m, 2.5 m ; s2 = 0.04 m2, s = 0.2 m

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Accuracy
Understanding accuracy

Example
Accepted value is 2.31 m
Which measurement set is more accurate, A or B?
Set A average: 2.4 m
Set B average: 2.3 m

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ACCURACY

Low

Low

High

PRECISION

High

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Expressing Accuracy
Absolute accuracy

Relative accuracy

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Considering Measurement Variations

Issue

Two approaches

Sources of error

Types of error

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Theory of Errors
Theory

Error
Issues

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Basic Principles
Four underlying principles in Theory of Errors

Confidence is provided by comparing to

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Theory of Observations
Theory

Issues

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Errors and Mistakes

Mistakes are NOT errors

Must do all possible to

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Types of Errors
Systematic errors (biases)

Random errors

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Redundancy in Measurements
Generally make redundant measurements

Most probable value (MPV)

Residuals

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Understanding Random Errors

Frequency of occurrence
Dispersion
Frequency
Histogram

Normal distribution

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Laws of Probability
Laws of probability

Increased precision

Decreased precision

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Expressing Precision
Expressing precision using standard deviation

n 1

2
r

n 1

Interpreting standard deviation

Percent errors
Use percent errors to specify required precision
E90 = 1.6449
E95 = 1.9599
E.g. require E95 to be less than specific value

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Readings
Chapter 3 sections 3.1 3.16

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Applying Measurement Science

Subsequent Use of Measured Values
Preanalysis of Measurements
Importance of Units

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Subsequent Use of Measured Values

Types of observations

Often use measurements to compute values

Three specific ideas

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Significant Figures
Two types of numeric values

In calculations

Issue

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Use of Weights
Applications

Incorporate multiplicative factors into computation

Very powerful tool

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Weighted Measurements
Situation: have greater confidence in some values
How to determine weight?
Commonly use weight derived by inverse proportion

1
1
or p
factor
factor 2

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Weighted Measurements Example

Group
1

Group
2

Group
3

2.4

2.8

4.5

3.0

3.0

3.2

3.1

3.2

5.1

Sum

8.5

9.0

12.8

Mean

2.8

3.0

4.3

S.D.

0.38

0.20

0.97

(2.83) (3.00) (4.27)

Regular Mean M
3.37
3
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Weighted Measurements Example

Group
1

Group
2

Group
3

2.4

2.8

4.5

3.0

3.0

3.2

3.1

3.2

5.1

Sum

8.5

9.0

12.8

Mean

2.8

3.0

4.3

S.D.

0.38

0.20

0.97

Weight

6.96

25.0

1.06

1
pi
(s.d.)2

(6.96) (2.83) (25.00)(3.00) (1.06)(4.27)

Mw
3.00
(6.96) (25.00) (1.06)
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Propagation of Variance
Variance of observations

Issue

Variance of result depends on

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Propagation of Variance (Contd)

Assumptions

Theoretical formulation
U f X, Y, Z, , Q
U
U2

2X UY

2Y UZ

2Z QU

Note: Standard deviation U found by taking square root

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2
Q

Propagation of Variance Example

Situation
Measure slope distance and vertical angle
Calculate horizontal distance

Measurements made
Slope distance (L) = 124.067 m with S.D. (sL) = 0.017 m
Angle () = 31 05' 25" with S.D. (s) = 00 00' 10"
= 0.0000485 radians

Calculating horizontal distance

H = L cos = 124.067 m x cos (31 05' 25") = 106.245 m

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Propagation of Variance Example

How good is calculated value of H?
Use propagation of variance to estimate variance

Calculating variance H L cos

H
cos cos (3105'25" ) 0.856355 m/m
L

H
L (-sin ) - 124.067 sin (3105'25" ) -64.06671 m/rad

H 2 H 2
2
2
2
5 2
sH
sL
s (0.856) (0.017) (-64.067) (4.85 10 )
L

sH 0.01489 0.015m

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Propagation of Variance (Contd)

Formulas in text
Generalizing propagation of variance

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Preanalysis of Measurements
Issue

Basically inverse of propagation of variance

Steps

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Preanalysis of Measurements
Situation

H Scos
Reducing slope distance to horizontal
How well does vertical angle need to be measured?

Steps
Differentiate H w.r.t.
Divide by original equation

dH
Ssin
d

dH Ssin d

dH Ssin d

tan d
H
Scos

Ignore sign, rearrange to get d (radians) d

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dH
tan H

Preanalysis of Measurements
Example
Measure slope distance along ~15 incline
Want relative accuracy in H of 1 in 10,000
How well do we need to measure ?

dH
d
tan H

1
0.000373 radians
tan1510,000

d 76.9" 77" 001'17"

Implication
Need a 1' instrument

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Units of Measurement
Linear distance units
Historic: Gunters chain: 1 chain = 66 feet = 4 rods = 100 links
English: international foot, US survey foot, yard, mile
Metric: meter

Angular distance

Sexagesimal: Degrees/minutes/seconds: 360 = circle

Decimal degrees
Grads: centesimal minutes and seconds: 400g = circle
Mils: 6400 mils = circles
Radians

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Units of Measurement
Area units
English: Acre: 1 acre = 1 chain x 10 chains = 43560 ft2
Metric: Hectare: 1 ha = 100m x 100m = 10,000 m2

Volume units
English: Cubic yards, Acre-feet
Metric: Cubic meters

The U.S. and the metric system

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Readings
Chapter 2 sections 2.1 2.5
Chapter 3 sections 3.17 3.21

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