Applying Relative, Asset Oriented,

and Real Option Valuation Methods to

Mergers and Acquisitions
Chapter 8

Learning Objectives
Primary learning objective: To provide students with knowledge of
alternatives to discounted cash flow valuation methods, including
Market Approach Similar to real estate valuations
Comparable companies
Comparable transactions
Same industry or comparable industry
Asset oriented approach
Tangible book value
Liquidation value
Break-up value
Cost approach
Weighted average method

See Website, Chapter 8, Alternate Valuation Ratios, Table 7, which discusses several
alternate Equity Valuation and Enterprise Valuation Ratios.

Applying Market-Based (Relative

Valuation) Methods1
MVT = (MVC / IC) x IT
Where
MVC
IC
IT
(MVC/IC)

= Market value of the comparable company C

= Measure of value for comparable company C
= Measure of value for company T
= Market value multiple for the comparable
company

Comparable companies may include those with profitability, risk, and growth characteristics similar to the target firm.

Relative Valuation
Value of asset is compared to values assessed
by the market for similar or comparable asset.
Requirements:
Identify comparable assets and market values
Convert market values to standardized values
creating price multiples.
Compare relative values controlling for any
differences.
Damodoran, Corporate Finance, New York University, Chapter 7
5

Relative valuation is pervasive

Most valuations on Wall Street are relative
valuations.
Almost 85% of equity research reports are
based upon a multiple and comparables.
More than 50% of all acquisition valuations are
based upon multiples
Rules of thumb based on multiples are not only
common but are often the basis for final
valuation judgments.
Another study indicates 10:1 in favor of relative comps.
6

Relative valuation is pervasive

While there are more discounted cash flow
valuations in consulting and corporate finance, they
are often relative valuations masquerading as
discounted cash flow valuations.
The objective in many discounted cash flow
valuations is to back into a number that has been
obtained by using a multiple.
The terminal value in a significant number of
discounted cash flow valuations is estimated
using a multiple.
7

Valuation Ratios versus DCF

Do both
Both entail use of value estimates, professional
judgment, quality of information and purpose of
valuation.
Acquisition of specific, known asset or company,
and good data, Comps may be better.
Acquisition of general, non-specific or unknown
asset or company, DCF may be better.
See Titman, Valuation-The Art and Science of Corporate Investment Decisions, 2011, pgs. 291-2.

Market-Based Methods: Comparable Company Example

Exhibit 8-1. Valuing Repsol YPF Using Comparable Integrated Oil Companies
Target Valuation Based on Following Multiples (MV C/VIC):
Comparable Company

Trailing P/E1

Forward
P/E2

Price/Sales

Price/Book

Col. 1

Col. 2

Col. 3

Col. 4

11.25

8.73

1.17

3.71

9.18

7.68

0.69

2.17

10.79

8.05

0.91

2.54

7.36

8.35

0.61

1.86

11.92

6.89

0.77

1.59

Total SA (TOT)

8.75

8.73

0.80

2.53

Eni SpA (E)

3.17

7.91

0.36

0.81

11.96

10.75

1.75

2.10

9.30

8.39

0.88

2.16

$4.38

$3.27

$92.66

$26.49

$40.72

$27.42

$81.77

$57.32

Exxon Mobil Corp (XOM)

British Petroleum (BP)
Chevron Corp (CVX)
Royal Dutch Shell (RDS-B)
ConocoPhillips (COP)

PetroChina Co. (PTR)

Average Multiple (MVC/VIC) Times
Repsol YPF Projections (VIT)3
Equals Estimated Value of Target
1

Average
Col. 1-4

$51.81

Trailing or Current 52 week average. 2Projected 52 week average. 3Billions of Dollars.

9

Valuation ExxonMobil Chemical

ExxonMobil, 3rd largest following BASF & DuPont
Division earned $3.428 Billion
Hypothetical assume spin off of division.
What is the baseline valuation? (Next slide - 10)
Modify baseline to adjust for relative size. (Slide 11)
Consider growth factors (Slide 12)

10

Equity Valuation Using PE Ratios

Chemical Company P/E Ratios
Share Price

EPS

P/E Ratio

BASF

$ 70.47

$ 5.243

13.44

Bayer

35.64

1.511

23.59

Dow Chemical

47.40

4.401

10.77

DuPont

41.00

2.572

15.94

Eastman Chemical

51.69

5.75

8.99

FMC

59.52

5.729

10.39

Rohm & Hass

45.02

2.678

16.81

Average

14.28

11

Market Cap and PE Ratios

P/E Ratio

Market Cap (Billions)

BASF

13.44

$ 38.25

Bayer

23.59

25.63

Dow Chemical

10.77

45.25

DuPont

15.94

40.61

Eastman Chemical *

8.99

4.10

FMC *

10.39

2.20

Rohm & Hass *

16.81

10.01

15.94

$37.44

12.06

5.44

Average (Big 4)
Average (Small 3)*

12

Variation of PE Ratio
Share Price

Current
EPS

Current/
Trailing P/E
Ratio

Forecast
EPS

Forward
P/E Ratio

BASF

$ 70.47

$ 5.243

13.44

$ 7.27

9.69

Bayer

35.64

1.511

23.59

2.69

13.27

Dow

47.40

4.401

10.77

5.71

8.30

DuPont

41.00

2.572

15.94

3.04

13.48

Eastman

51.69

5.75

8.99

5.93

8.71

FMC

59.52

5.729

10.39

5.66

10.51

Rohm &
Hass

45.02

2.678

16.81

3.12

14.44

Average

14.28

11.20

13

Valuation of ExxonMobil
Baseline valuation
Earnings $3.428B X P/E Ratio 14.28 = $48.94 B

Modification to reflect relative size

Earnings $3.428B X P/E Ratio 15.94 = $54.63 B

Further modification
Substantial dispersion (10.77 23.59) in P/E
Ratios even among top 4 firms indicate risk and
growth potential must be considered.
14

Market-Based Methods:
Recent Transactions Method1
Calculation similar to comparable companies
method, except multiples used to estimate targets
value based on purchase prices of recently
acquired comparable companies.
Most accurate method whenever the transaction is
truly comparable and recent. Boston Beer IPO
Major limitation is that truly comparable recent
transactions are rare.
Also called precedent method.

15

Boston Beer Company

Founded 1984 6th generation brewer (HBS)

Drawn by European, more bitter brews.
Not looking to compete with Budweiser etc.
By 1994, largest craft brewer, grew 57%.
7 year round and seasonal beers.
Boston Lager 63% of sales.
European standards and raw materials.
16

Boston Beer Company

Used four contract breweries.
Four initiatives
High quality 5 masters, date passed, beer goes
Contract brewing Pros and cons?
Intensive marketing & sales 40 of each $
Product innovations - seasonal & private labeling
Outlook
Current growth stagnant but craft beers grew
Niche marketing and development?

17

Boston Beer Company

Competitors - SWOT
Majors AB Bev; Coors, Miller
2nd Tier Strohs, Heileman, Genessee etc.
Tough for them to fight the Big 3
Loss of market share
Excess capacity How did this help BBC?

Imports German, Holland, Canada, Mexico.

Subsequent changes due to M&A ie. Molson/Coors
Craft breweries far and away, the smallest
18

Boston Beer Company

Craft Brewing smallest; rapid growth -40%
Very competitive, proprietary recipes
Catered to upscale market therefore expensive
Four types
Brewpubs (12%) - product consumed on site
Micro (22%) limited distribution < 15,000 bbls
Regional (30%)- limited distribution, capital intensive,
limited marketing, brand recognition
Custom (36%) Typically contract, less capital
intensive therefore more marketing $
19

Boston Beer Company

Recent IPOs:
Redhook two plants, planning a third, allied with Bud in NH
using distribution network. 41% growth Now Craft Brewers
Alliance. $6.84 share price 10/5/11
Petes Contract brewer, allied with Strohs, planned to build
brewery. Now Petes Wicked Brewing. Private. Affiliated with
Gambrinus, importers Moosehead, Corona
Further characteristics See previous slides
Questions and Issues from the Market:
Positive reception how well/how long? Hula hoop?
Age old question of sustainable growth.
Dependence on 2nd tier breweries?
20

Boston Beer IPO Calculation

21

Boston Beer IPO

November 21, 1995 , BBC issues 2.9 million
shares at $20 each.
Price by end of day rose 50% to $30.75.
Todays Price $80.49. Earlier this year,
$100.93.

22

Market-Based Methods:
Same or Comparable Industry Method
Multiply targets earnings or revenues by
market value to earnings or revenue ratios
for the average firm in targets industry or a
comparable industry.
Primary advantage is the ease of use and
availability of data.
Disadvantages include presumption
industry multiples are actually comparable
and analysts projections are unbiased.
23

PEG Ratio = PE Ratio/Earnings Growth

Used to adjust relative valuation methods for differences in growth rates among
comparable firms.
Many current models assumes zero or minimal growth
BES/CPS example: BES/CPS 15 & 9% respectively vs industry 12.4 & 11%.
Helpful in determining which of a number of different firms in same industry
exhibiting different growth rates may be the most attractive.
(MVT/VIT) = A and
VITGR

Where A
MVT
VIT
VITGR

MVT = A x VITGR x VIT

= Market price to value indicator relative to the growth rate of
value indicator (e.g., (P/E)/ EPS growth rate)
= Market value of target
= Value indicator for target (e.g., EPS)
= Projected growth rate in value indicator (e.g., EPS)

24

Applying the PEG Ratio

An analyst is asked to determine whether Basic Energy Service (BAS) or Composite Production
Services (CPS) is more attractive as an acquisition target. Both firms provide engineering,
construction, and specialty services to the oil, gas, refinery, and petrochemical industries.
BES and CPS have projected annual earnings per share growth rates of 15 percent and 9
percent, respectively. BES and CPS current earnings per share are $2.05 and $3.15,
respectively. The current share prices as of June 25, 2008 for BES is $31.48 and for CPX is $26.
The industry average price-to-earnings ratio and growth rate are 12.4 and 11 percent,
respectively. Based on this information, which firm is a more attractive takeover target as of the
point in time the firms are being compared?
Industry average PEG ratio:1 12.4 (PE Ratio) /.11 (Growth rate of earnings) = 112.73
BES: Implied share price = 112.73 x .15 x $2.05 = $34.66
10.1% undervalued
CPX: Implied share price = 112.73 x .09 x $3.15 = $31.96
22.9% undervalued
Answer: The difference between the implied and actual share prices for BES and CPX is $3.18
(i.e., $34.66 - $31.48) and $5.96 ($31.96 - $26.00), respectively. CPX is more undervalued than
BES at that moment in time.
Solving MVT = A x VITGR x VIT using an individual firms PEG ratio provides the firms current or share price in period T, since this
formula is an identity. An industry average PEG ratio may be used to provide an estimate of the firms intrinsic value. This implicitly
assumes that both firms exhibit the same relationship between price-to-earnings ratios and earnings growth rates.
1

25

Asset-Based Methods:
Tangible Book Value
Tangible book value (TBV) = (total assets - total
liabilities - goodwill)
Targets estimated value = Targets TBV x [(industry
average or comparable firm market value) /
(industry or comparable firm TBV)].
Often used for valuing
Financial services firms where tangible book
value is primarily cash or liquid assets
Distribution firms where current assets
constitute a large percentage of total assets

Remember impact of GAAP = historical cost

26

Valuing Companies Using Asset Based Methods

Ingram Micro distributes information technology products worldwide. The firms share price on
8/21/08 was $19.30. Projected 5-year annual net income growth is 9.5% and the firms beta
is .89. Shareholders equity is $3.4 billion and goodwill is $.7 billion. Ingram has 172 million
(.172 billion) shares outstanding. The following firms represent Ingrams primary competitors.
Market Value/
Tangible Book Value

Beta

Projected 5-Year Net

Income Growth
Rate (%)

Tech Data

.91

.90

11.6

Synnex Corporation

.70

.40

6.9

Avnet

1.01

1.09

12.1

Arrow

.93

.97

13.2

Based on this information, what is Ingrams tangible book value per share (VI T)? What is the
appropriate industry average market value to tangible book value ratio (MV IND/VIIND)? Estimate
the implied market value per share for Ingram (MVT) using tangible book value as a value
indicator. Based on this analysis, is Ingram under-or-overvalued compared to its 8/21/08
share price?
Note both Beta and 5 Year Growth Rate used to cull out irrelevant Company.
27

Solution to Ingram Problem

Ingrams net tangible book value per share (VI T) = ($3.4 -$.7)/.172 = $15.70

Based on risk as measured by the firm beta and the 5-year projected earnings
growth rate, Synnex is believed to exhibit significantly different risk and growth
characteristics and is excluded from the calculation of the industry average
market value to tangible book value ratio. Therefore, the appropriate industry
average ratio is as follows:
MVIND/VIIND = .95 [i.e., (.91+1.01+.93)/3]

Ingrams implied value per share = MV T = (MVIND/VIIND) x VIT = .95 x $15.70 = $14.92

Based on the implied value per share, Ingram was over-valued on 8/21/08 when its
share price was $19.30

Note, we are deriving tangible book value by assuming it equals equity less intangible assets (goodwill). The
better approach would be to review or project NBV from financial statement.

28

Asset-Based Methods: Liquidation Method

Value assets as if sold in an orderly fashion (e.g., 9-12
months) and deduct value of liabilities and expenses
associated with asset disposition. Used in Chapter 7/11
Bankruptcy Cases.
While varies with industry,
Receivables often sold for 80-90% of book value
Inventories might realize 80-90% of book value
depending on degree of obsolescence and condition
Equipment values vary widely depending on age and
condition and purpose (e.g., special purpose)
Book value of land may understate market value
Prepaid assets such as insurance can be liquidated with
a portion of the premium recovered.
29

Asset-Based Methods:
Liquidation Method
Nortel Networks Canadian Company
July 1, 2011 pursuant to Bankruptcy
Sold 6,000 patents for $4.5 Billion at auction to
Rockstar Bidco.
Consortium Apple, EMC, Microsoft, RIM & Sony
Google defensive, stalking horse bid to
discourage suits over Android & Chrome.
Intel early bidder but teamed with Google
30

Asset-Based Method: Break-Up Value

Target viewed as series of independent operating units,
whose income, cash flow, and balance sheet statements
reflect intra-company sales, fully-allocated costs, and
operating liabilities specific to each unit
After-tax cash flows are valued using market-based
multiples or discounted cash flows analysis to determine
operating units current market value
The units equity value is determined by deducting
operating liabilities from current market value Mkt. Cap
Aggregate equity value of the business is determined by
summing equity value of each operating unit less
unallocated liabilities and break-up costs
May be used by private equity/hedge and LBO deals.
31

McGraw Hill Spin Off ?

August 2011 Publisher & S&P owner
Pressure from activist hedge fund Jana Partners and
Ontario Teachers Pension Plan.
Meetings between MH (Goldman) & Jana
MH mini conglomerate of non related information
businesses. Education capital intensive and plodding
growth?
Lazard & JPMorgan Chase breakup value $55 per
share versus $41 current price.

See website, McGraw Hill Faces Breakup Pressures, Business Week, August 2, 2011

32

Replacement Cost Method

All target operating assets are assigned a value
based on what it would cost to replace them.
Each asset is treated as if no additional value is
created by operating the assets as part of a
going concern.
Each assets value is summed to determine the
aggregate value of the business.
This approach is limited if the firm is highly
profitable (suggesting a high going concern
value) or if many of the firms assets are
intangible.
33

Weighted Average Valuation Method

An analyst has estimated the value of a
company using multiple valuation
methodologies. The discounted
cash flow value is $220 million,
comparable transactions value is
$234 million, the P/E-based value is
$224 million and the liquidation
value is $150 million. The analyst
has greater confidence in certain
methodologies than others.
Estimate the weighted average
value of the firm using all valuation
methodologies and the weights or
relative importance the analyst gives
to each methodology.

Estimated
Value ($M)

Relative
Weight

Weighted
Avg. ($M)

220

.30

66.0

234

.40

93.6

224

.20

44.8

150

.10

15.0

1.00

219.4

34

Real Options as Applied to M&As

Real options refer to managements ability to adopt and later revise
corporate investment decisions (e.g., acquisitions) - Genzyme
Options to expand (i.e., accelerate investment)
Acquirer accelerates investment in target after acquisition completed
due to better than anticipated performance of the target
Options to delay (i.e., postpone timing of initial investment)
Acquirer delays completion of acquisition until a patent pending
receives approval
Options to abandon (i.e., divest or liquidate initial investment)
Acquirer divests target firm due to underperformance and recovers a
portion of its initial investment

35

Alternative Real Option

Valuation Methods
Develop a decision tree for which the NPV of each
branch represents the value of alternative real options.
The options value is equal to difference between its NPV
and the NPV without the real option. Art or science?
Treat the real options as financial options and value using
the Black-Scholes method.
Option to expand or delay are valued as call options and
added to the NPV of the investment without the option.
Option to abandon is valued as a put option and added
to the NPV of the investment without the option.
36

Analyzing Microsofts Real Options in

Its Attempted Takeover of Yahoo handicapping
Optiontotoexpand
expand
Option
contingenton
on
contingent
successful
successful
integrationofofYahoo
Yahoo
integration
MSN
&&MSN

BaseCase:
Case:
Base
Microsoft
offerstoto
Microsoft offers
buyall
alloutstanding
outstanding
buy
shares
Yahoo
shares ofofYahoo

Optiontotopostpone
postpone
Option
contingent
on
contingent on
Yahoosrejection
rejectionofof
Yahoos
offer
offer

Optiontotoabandon
abandon
Option
contingenton
onfailure
failure
contingent
to integrate Yahoo &
to integrate Yahoo &
MSN
MSN

PurchaseYahoo
Yahoo
Purchase
online
search
online search
businessonly.
only.Buy
Buy
business
remaining
remaining
businesseslater.
later.
businesses
Offersame/lower
same/lower
Offer
price
for
allofof
price for all
Yahooififboard
board
Yahoo
composition
composition
changes
changes
Spin-off combined
Spin-off combined
Yahoo&&MSN
MSNtoto
Yahoo
Microsoft
Microsoft
shareholders
shareholders

Divestcombined
combined
Divest
Yahoo&&MSN.
MSN.Use
Use
Yahoo
proceeds
to
pay
proceeds to pay
dividend or buy
dividend or buy
backstock.
stock.
back

37