Transport and behaviour of

pollutants in the environment

In all cases of pollution there is:
a source of pollution
the pollutants themselves
the transport medium (air, water,
land)
the target (or receptor) which includes
ecosystems, individual organisms and
structures

Pollution can be classified in several

ways according to:
the source (e.g. agricultural pollution;
natural/stationary)
the media affected (e.g. air pollution)
by the nature of the pollutant (e.g.
heavy metal pollution)

 Pollutants are basically of two types:

primary (SO2, CO, NO, CO2, NO2, most
hydrocarbons and suspended
particles), which exert harmful effects
in the form in which they enter the
environment; and
Secondary (SO3, H2SO4, NHO3, O3, H2O2,
most of NO3 and SO4 2- ) pollutants
which are synthesized as a result of
chemical processes, often from less
harmful precursors, in the environment.

Pollutants have certain properties which

determine the likely effect that they will
have after emission or discharge into the
environment. These properties include:
short- and long-term toxicity

persistence
dispersion properties
chemical reactions that the compound
undergoes, including decomposition
tendency to be accumulated in food-chains

ease of control

Major environmental impurities,

pollutants
1. Gases dissolved in water
The chemical characteristics of rain, fog, and
cloud droplets are strongly influenced by the
dissolution of gaseous species in liquid water, for
example, pH of rainwater is affected by the
presence of dissolved CO 2, SO2, HNO3 and NH3
compounds.
At the anaerobic conditions compounds such as
CH4, NH3, H2S are produced which bring
environmental concern. Methane is a greenhouse
gas, NH3nd H2S are toxic gases with unpleasant
odor.

2. Water in air
The water vapor content in the
atmosphere is important for human
being existence. Very dry air and
very moist air bring some discomfort
to the humans.
Liquid water in the atmosphere plays
a role in the flow of energy through
the atmosphere, in visibility, and the
transformation of pollutants.

3. Acid, bases and pH

Acid fogs have pH values as low as
2.2, whereas in a water treatment
process known as chemical
precipitation pH can reach value of
11. pH= -log [H+]
pH is very important parameter in
the determination of concentration of
many other species in water.

4. Inorganic impurities
One useful classification if water and air
impurities is inorganic versus organic. However,
within both inorganic and organic categories
there exist broad ranges of species.
The most prevalent ions in natural waters:
sodium; magnesium, calcium, potassium,
chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate ions in water
originate from the dissolution of electrically
neutral molecules that either enter water from
the gas phase or, come in contact with water as
a solid.
Ions directly affect such water properties as ionic
strength, hardness and alkalinity.
Toxic metals

5. Organic impurities
Thousands of organic chemicals are found in air
and water, many are environmentally benign.
Such synthesized organic compounds as
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and DDT have
been found to be very severely disruptive to
ecosystems.
Another subclass of organic compounds,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) originally hailed
as a significant technological achievement
when introduced in the 1950s were found
after wide use to damage the stratospheric
ozone layer.

Specific compounds:
Formaldehyde (HCHO) is an industrial chemical
used as component part in resins, as
preservative in cosmetics and toiletries, etc.
Beside the emissions from the industrial
processes, formaldehyde is formed in
photochemical smog by the degradation of
other organics. It is a by-product of incomplete
combustion and so is found in wood and
tobacco smoke and in auto exhaust. It has a
pungent odor and is irritating to mucous
membranes at relatively low concentrations.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a family of

chemicals that typically contain one or two
carbon atoms attached to a mix of Cl, F, and
H atoms.
CFCs were developed for use as the working
fluid in refrigeration units (previously toxic
gases such as sulfur dioxide and ammonia
were used), aerosol propellants and foaming
agents.
CFCs exhibit very little toxicity, stable in the
environment. The production of CFCs
reached 500 billion kg per year at the peak.
It is the stability of CFCs that causes
environmental problems. CFCs are
transported from the troposphere to the
stratosphere and under UV light

 Benzene (C6H6) is the simplest aromatic

organic compound.
It is used as an octane-boosting
component in gasoline and as a solvent;
it is also present in tobacco smoke as a
product of incomplete combustion of any
hydrocarbon fuels.
Benzene is classified as carcinogenic
substance causing leukemia, lymphomas.
Tobacco smoke present much greater
danger to humans compared to industrial
emissions of benzene as it involves a
direct exposure of a human.

 Perchloroethylene (C2H4) or
tetrachloroethylene, PCE, is a
halogenated organic compound
(halogens are Cl, F, I, Br).
These chlorinated solvents are widely
used in the industrial applications.
PCE is also commonly used in drycleaning.
The chlorinated solvents are the
most commonly reported
groundwater contaminants at

 Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) this class of compounds

have a double aromatic ring structure coupled
by two oxygen atoms, with some chlorine
atoms substituting for hydrogen.
Specific concern is about 2,3,7,8tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin or 2,3,7,8-TCDD for
short.
Dioxins are formed as by-products in the
manufacture of some pesticides and during the
combustion of plastics and chlorinated
solvents.
2,3,7,8-TCDD is considered as the most toxic
compound produced by human activities.
dioxins are very persistent in the environment.

 Benzo(a)pyrene (C20H12, or BaP) and

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) or
polynuclear aromatic compounds (PNAs).
The specific feature is the presence of
multiple rings fused together.
They are formed during combustion of
hydrocarbon fuels under conditions of
insufficient oxygen. Soot from diesel engines
and smoke from wood fires, barbecues,
cigarettes, tend to be rich in PAHs. BaP is
released from the wood cooking fires and
affect human health, especially in the less
developed regions. PAHs are carcinogens.

Nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHC): the

photochemical smog is generated from NOx,
organic gases and sunshine (hv). The
secondary pollutants are generated such as
nitric, sulphuric, organic acids, ozone,
aldehydes, organic particulate matter.
The production of these secondary pollutants
depends on the total amount of organic
gases in the atmosphere. The level of
reactive organic gases thus is expressed in
terms of the mass or mole fraction of
nonmethane hydrocarbon (NMHC),
nonmethanic organic gases (NMOG), or
reactive organic gases (ROG). Methane is
excluded from such representations because

6. Radionuclides
Chemical elements with unstable
atomic nucleus, in the process of
their decay the energy is released
and excessive levels of such
radioactive energy is harmful to
living organisms. Industrial uses of
radioactivity, such as nuclear power
production, also create major
environmental concerns

7. Compounds causing odour, taste, or colour

Taste
Metals examples: Fe, Mg, Cu, Zn
Chlorine from disinfection process
Chlorinated organics from disinfection and groundwater contamination
Total dissolved solids <1200 mg/L acceptable, <650 mg/L preferred
Odour
Hydrogen sulphide rotten egg smell; anaerobic degradation of sulphur
compounds
Geosmin earthy/musty smell from blue-green algae and
actinomycetes
Phenolic odour chlorine from disinfection reacting with phenols in
water
Colour
Iron and manganese red or brownish colour; stains cloth
Humic and fulvic acids from soil organic matter; reddish brown
Tannins dissolved plant materials; brownish

8. Particulate matter
Suspended particles can cause several
environmental problems, including the
following:
- decreased visibility (turbidity, haze,
smog)
- disease transmission, suspended
particles may host pathogenic
microorganisms
- transport and delivery of toxic
materials (heavy metals, PAHs, PCBs)
- acute respiratory health effects

9. Microorganisms:
Waterborne
Disease
Causative agent
Type of organism
Amebic dysentery Entamoeba histolytica
Protozoa
Bacterial dysenter yShigella
Bacteria
Cholera
Vibrio cholerae
Bacteria
Cryptosporodiosis
Cryptosporodium
Protozoa
Gastroenteritis
Escherichia coli, Campylobacter
jejuni, Salmonella
Bacteria
Giardiasis
Giardia lamblia
Protozoa
Hepatitis
Hepatitis A
Virus
Typhoid
Salmonella typhi
Bacteria
Viral gastroenteritis Norwalk viruses, rotaviruses
Virus
Airborne
Chicken pox
Varicella-zoster virus
Virus
Legionnaires disease
Legionella pneumophila
Bacteria
Measles
Paramyxovirus
Virus
Tuberculosis
Mycobacterium tuberculosis Bacteria

Transport of pollutants in air

Factors affecting pollutants movements:
the height pollutant reach in the atmosphere
their particle size
climatic conditions
The extent to which air pollutants become diluted after
the emission is largely controlled by the factors
determining the degree of turbulence in the
boundary later and these include:
incoming solar radiation
wind speed
cloud cover
land surface roughness

Transport of pollutants in water

The transport and dispersion of
pollutants in the aquatic environment
is controlled by advection (mass
movement) and mixing or diffusion
(without net movement of water).
The vertical movement of water is
often restricted due to stratification
(large water bodies) caused by the
differences in temperature and
density or salinity, in rivers it is
limited due to depth.

Transport of pollutants in water

The pollutants tend to accumulate in lakes and seas
and in the sediments at the bottom of these bodies
of water. Influencing factors are similar to the
factors mentioned for air pollution.
Modeling tools for air and water pollution are similar
and basic equation is :
Cx = C0 * e kt
where Cx is the concentration at point x
C0 is the concentration at the point of discharge
k is the decay rate
t is the time taken for flow from the point of
discharge to point x.

Transport of pollutants in water

When the water in aquifer becomes
polluted it is important to determine
the movement of the pollutant within
the aquifer. The parameters involved
are:
the velocity of the groundwater
the permeability of the aquifer
material
the adsorptive properties of the
aquifer
the chemical properties of the

The behavior of pollutants in

soil

Many pollutants tend to accumulate in

soil, mostly due to adsorption to the
surface soil colloids. This adsorption
inhibits the leaching of pollutants down
the soil profile to the water table,
reduces their bioavailability to plants
and, affects their rate of decomposition.

Usually only the surface layer of

sediments has oxidation conditions. The
major thickness of sediments has anoxic
conditions which resemble conditions in
waterlogged (glued) soils.

The behavior of pollutants in

soil
Soils comprise a mixture of organic, mineral, gaseous and
liquid constituents inhabited by a wide range of
microorganisms which catalyze many important
reactions.
Organic matter in soils and humic compounds are the
products of microbial activities.
The concentration of ions in the soil solution is determined
by the interacting processes: Oxidation, Reduction,
Adsorption, Precipitation & Desorption
Soluble pollutants move down the soil profile and insoluble
pollutants are accumulated on the surface. Some organic
pollutants undergo photolytic decomposition on the soil
surface under UV influence.

The more strongly pollutant are adsorbed, the

less likely they are to be leached from the soil
profile or to be available for uptake by plants.
Metals, inorganic anions and certain organic
molecules are adsorbed onto soil colloids.
Non-ionic organic molecules (inc.
hydrocarbons), most organic pollutants and
pesticides are adsorbed onto humic polymers.
M/org species in soil play very important role
as their activities influence physico-chemical
properties of the soil, esp. pH of the soil;
depending on the products of the m/org
activities. Specific m/org species use specific
substrate for their growth and have specific
intermediate and byproducts.

Ion-exchange is a very important

phenomenon in soil and it refers to the
exchange between the counter-ions
balancing surface charge on the soil
colloids and the ions in the soil solution.
The extent to which soil constituents can act
as cation exchanges is expressed as the
cation exchange capacity (CEC). Units:
meq/100g.
Examples: CEC (cmolsc/kg)
Soil organic mater 150-300
Kaolinite (clay) 2-5
Illite (clay) 15-40

Types of transport of a substance in a

fluid (air or water), NATURAL
PROCESSES:
1. Advection: Passive entrainment
of substance by the carrying fluid
Examples: Sediments flowing down a river; Smokestack fume blown
by the wind

2. Diffusion: Motion with respect to the carrying fluid by random

molecular collision
Example: spreading of a toxic gas in still air

3. Turbulent dispersion: Motion with respect to the carrying fluid by

chaotic, turbulent swirls of the fluid motion. Example: stirring
cream in coffee

4. Gravitational settling: Vertical motion with respect to the fluid

because of a density difference; particles heavier than fluid sink to
the bottom; those lighter than the fluid rise to the top.
Example: soil particles settling at the bottom of a lake, oil drops
floating on the sea

Environmental
legislation
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Created on December 2, 1970
Administration of a myriad of federal
environmental laws dealing with air
and water pollution, drinking water
quality, radioactive wastes,
pesticides, solid wastes, and noise
pollution

 Water Quality Management

Water Quality Act 1965
Clean Water Act 1977
Safe Drinking Water Act 1974
Air Quality Management
Clean Air Act 1963
Air Quality Act 1967
Noise Pollution Control
Noise Control Act 1972
Hazardous Wastes
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 1976,
Toxic Substances Control Act 1976,
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 1972
Atomic Energy and Radiation
Atomic Energy Act 1946
Nuclear Waste Policy Act 1982

http://www2.epa.gov/laws-regulations/laws-and-executive

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT

DOE as Enforcement Agency

Institutionalised in 1975
Main role is to prevent, control and
abate pollution through the
enforcement of the EQA, 1974 and
its 34 subsidiary legislations made
thereunder
The principal agency entrusted to
administer the EQA 1974 and its
subsidiary legislations

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT 1974

An Act relating to the prevention,

abatement, control of pollution and
enhancement of the environment,
and for the purposes connected
therewith
Noise

Water

EQA
1974
Air

Industrial
wastes
Elements covered under EQA
1974