Qualitative vs.

Quantitative
Research

Descriptive Research
Research

that describes what is, describing,

analyzing,
and
interpreting
conditions
that

recording,
exist
*

Involves

some type of contrast and attempts to discover

relationships
between
non-manipulated
variables
*

Research that provides and accurate portrayal of characteristics

of

particular

individual,

situation,

or

group

**

Used as a means of discovering new meaning, describing what

exits, determining the frequency with which something occurs,

and
categorizing
information
**
The systematic investigation of relationships among two or more

variables, without determining or interpreting cause and effect

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09/01/2016

Experimental Research
describes

what will be when certain

variables
are
carefully
controlled
or
manipulated
*

objective, systematic, controlled investigation

for the purpose of predicting and controlling

phenomena and examining probability and
causality among selected variables **

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09/01/2016

Historical Research
Involves investigating, recording, analyzing,

and interpreting the events of the past for the

purpose of discovering generalizations that
are helpful in understanding the past and the
present, and, to a limited extent, in
anticipating
the
future
*
Research involving analysis of events that

occurred in the remote or recent past **

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09/01/2016

Qualitative

Quantitative

The aim of qualitative analysis is

a complete detailed description.

In quantitative research we
classify features, count them, and
construct statistical models in an
attempt to explain what is
observed.

The design emerges as the study

unfolds

All aspects of the study are

carefully designed before data is
collected.

Researcher is the data gathering

instrument.

Researcher uses tools

(questionnaires or equipment) to
collect data.

Data is in the form of words

(interviews), pictures (videos), or
objects (artifacts).

Data is in the form of numbers

and statistics.

Qualitative data is more rich, time Quantitative data is more

consuming, and less able to be
efficient, able to test hypotheses,
generalized.
but may miss contextual data.
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09/01/2016

Nature of Qualitative Research

a)Seeking to probe beneath appearances
(insiders may view things differently than
outsiders)
Practical problems:
Risks of going native and losing sight of what

are you studying

Where are the limits, e.g., participating in
illegal or dangerous activities
Possibility that the researcher will be able to
see only through the eyes of some of the
participants
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09/01/2016

b) Description and the emphasis on the

context
Qualitative researchers provide a great deal of
descriptive details when reporting the results
of their research. This is to provide
explanations
Details
are
important
for
qualitative
researchers because:
Their significance to their subjects
The details provide account of the context within

which peoples behavior takes place

Contextual understanding of social behavior
We cannot understand the behavior of members

of a social group other than in terms of the

specific environment in which they operate
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c. Emphasis on process
Quantitative research tends to view social life

in terms of processes
There is often a concern to show how events

and patterns unfold over time

Qualitative evidence often conveys a strong
sense of change and flux
Process is a sequence of individual and
collective events, actions, and activities
unfolding over time in context

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09/01/2016

d) Flexibility and limited structure

Unstructured approach keeping structure to

the minimum is supposed to enhance the

opportunity
of
genuinely
reveling
the
perspectives of the people you are studding
Qualitative

researchers adopt methods of

research that do not require development of
highly specific research questions in advance

Flexibility researcher can change direction in

the course of his/her investigation much more

easily then quantitative research

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09/01/2016

e) Concepts and theory grounded in the

data
Preference for treating theory as something

that emerges out of the collection and

analysis of data
Grounded theory stresses the importance
of allowing theoretical ideas to emerge out of
ones data

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09/01/2016

Steps In Qualitative
Research
1.General Research Questions

2. Selecting relevant site(s)/subjects

3. Collection of relevant data

Collection of further data
4. Interpretation of data

5. Conceptual/theoretical work
Tighter specification of research questions
6. Write up findings/conclusions

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09/01/2016

Where to use Qualitative

research
Acquiring

more personal experience with

phenomenon the researcher is interested in
Exploratory research
Complex and sensitive issues
Evaluation research
Action research
In combination with quantitative research:
To explain correlations yielded by quantitative

analysis, i.e., their causes and effects

When proven measures are unavailable for
quantitative research. Use qualitative at the
initial stage to develop indicators
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09/01/2016

Qualitative Research Methods

Several diverse methods associated with
qualitative research:
Ethnography/participant observation
Qualitative interviewing
Focus groups
Discourse and conversation analysis (language

based approach)
The collection and qualitative analysis of text and
documents

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09/01/2016

The Critique of Qualitative

Research
a) Qualitative research is too subjective
Qualitative finding rely too much on:
The researchers often unsystematic views
about what is significant and important
Upon
close personal relationships which
researcher frequently creates with the people
studied

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09/01/2016

b) Difficult to replicate
Unstructured nature and reliance on researchers

inventiveness makes it impossible to conduct true

replication, since there are hardly any standard
procedures to be followed
Researcher is the main instrument of data
collection, what is observed and heard; also, what
the researcher decides to concentrate upon is very
much product of his/her preferences
Differences

between

researchers

in

determining

what

is

significant
Responses of participants is likely to be affected by the
characteristics of the researcher (personality, age, gender etc)
Unstructured data leads to interpretation profoundly influenced
by subjective leaning of a researcher
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09/01/2016

c) Problems of generalization
The scope of findings of is restricted
Findings are to be generalized to theory rather

than to population
Moderatum generalization that is, one in
which aspects of the focus of enquiry (e.g., a
group of football hooligans) can be seen to be
instances of a broader set of recognizable
features
d) Lack of transparency
It is sometimes difficult to establish what the
researcher actually did and how s/he arrived at
the studys conclusion
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09/01/2016

Introduction to Quantitative Research

Quantity is the unit of analysis

Amounts
Frequencies
Degrees
Values
Intensity
Uses statistics for greater precision and

objectivity
Based on the deductive model
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Model for Conceptualizing

Quantitative Research
Overall purpose or

objective
Research literature
Research
questions
and
hypotheses
Selecting
appropriate
methods
Validity
and
reliability of the
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data

Creating the Foundation

for Quantitative Research
Concept
Abstract

thinking to distinguish it from other

elements
Construct
Theoretical

definition of a concept; must be

observable or measurable; linked to other concepts

Variable
Presented in research questions and hypotheses

Operationalization
Specifically

how

the

variable

is

observed

or

measured
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09/01/2016

Research Hypotheses
for Quantitative Research
Educated guess or presumption based on

literature
States the nature of the relationship between
two or more variables
Predicts the research outcome
Research
study designed to test the
relationship described in the hypothesis

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09/01/2016

Quantitative
Research Hypotheses
Directional hypothesis
Precise statement indicating the nature and

direction
of
the
between variables

relationship/difference

Non-directional hypothesis
States only that relationship/difference will

occur

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09/01/2016

Assessing Hypotheses

Simply stated?
Single sentence?
At least two variables?
Variables clearly stated?
Is the relationship/difference
stated?
Testable?

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precisely

09/01/2016

Null Hypotheses
Implicit

complementary statement to the

research hypothesis
States
no relationship/difference exists
between variables
Statistical test performed on the null
Assumed to be true until support for the
research hypothesis is demonstrated

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09/01/2016

Research Traditions
in the Use of Hypotheses
Hypotheses are always tentative
Research

hypothesis,
not
the
null
hypothesis, is the focus of the research and
presented in the research report

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09/01/2016

Research Questions
in Quantitative Research
Preferred when little is known about a

communication phenomenon
Used
when previous studies report
conflicting results
Used
to
describe
communication
phenomena

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09/01/2016

Types of Variables
Variable
Element that is identified in the hypothesis or

research question
Property or characteristic of people or things
that varies in quality or magnitude
Must have two or more levels
Must be identified as independent

or

dependent

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Independent Variables
Manipulation or variation of this variable is

the cause of change in other variables

Technically, independent variable is the term
reserved for experimental studies
Also called antecedent variable, experimental

variable, treatment variable, causal variable,

predictor variable

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09/01/2016

Dependent Variables
The variable of primary interest
Research

question/hypothesis
describes,
explains, or predicts changes in it
The variable that is influenced or changed by
the independent variable
In

non-experimental research, also

criterion variable, outcome variable

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called

09/01/2016

Relationship Between Independent

and Dependent Variables
Cannot

specify independent variables

without specifying dependent variables
Number of independent and dependent
variables depends on the nature and
complexity of the study
The number and type of variables dictates
which statistical test will be used

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09/01/2016

Intervening and
Confounding Variables
Intervening variable
Explains or provides a link between IV and
DV
Relationship between the IV and DV can only
be explained when the intervening variable is
present
Confounding variable
Confuses

or obscures the effect of

independent on dependent
Makes it difficult to isolate the effects of the
independent variable
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09/01/2016

Operationalizing Variables
All variables need an operationalization
Multiple operationalizations exist for

variables
Specifies the way in
observed or measured

which

most

variable

is

Practical and useful?

Justified argument?
Coincides with the conceptual definition?

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09/01/2016

Making the Case

for Quantitative Research
Advantages
Tradition and history implies rigor
Numbers and statistics allows precise and

exact comparisons
Generalization of findings
Limitations
Cannot capture complexity of communication

over time
Difficult to apply
environments
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outside

of

controlled

09/01/2016

Issues of Reliability and Validity

Reliability = consistency in procedures and

in reactions of participants
Validity = truth - Does it measure what it
intended to measure?
When reliability and validity are achieved,
data are free from systematic errors

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09/01/2016

Threats to Reliability and

Validity
If

measuring device cannot make fine

distinctions
If
measuring device cannot capture
people/things that differ
When attempting to measure something
irrelevant or unknown to respondent
Can measuring device really capture the
phenomenon?

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09/01/2016

Other Sources of
Variation
Variation

must

represent

differences
Other sources of variation

true

Factors not measured

Personal factors
Differences in situational factors
Differences in research administration
Number of items measured
Unclear measuring device
Mechanical or procedural issues
Statistical processing of data
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09/01/2016