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and Stability
In previous chapters we examined the use of test signals such as a step and a ramp
signal. In this chapter we consider the steady-state response of a system to a sinusoidal
input test signal. We will see that the response of a linear constant coefficient system to
a sinusoidal input signal is an output sinusoidal signal at the same frequency as the
input. However, the magnitude and phase of the output signal differ from those of the
input sinusoidal signal, and the amount of difference is a function of the input
frequency. Thus we will be investigating the steady-state response of the system to a
sinusoidal input as the frequency varies.
We will examine the transfer function G(s) when s =jw and develop methods for
graphically displaying the complex number G(j)as w varies. The Bode plot is one of the
most powerful graphical tools for analyzing and designing control systems, and we will
cover that subject in this chapter. We will also consider polar plots and log magnitude
and phase diagrams. We will develop several time-domain performance measures in
terms of the frequency response of the system as well as introduce the concept of
system bandwidth.
Introduction
The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady-state
response of the system to a sinusoidal input signal. The sinusoid
is a unique input signal, and the resulting output signal for a linear
system, as well as signals throughout the system, is sinusoidal in
the steady-state; it differs form the input waveform only in
amplitude and phase.
j 1
R 1
C 0.01
1
R C
Negative
j 1
0.5
Im( G( ) )
0.5
0.5
Re( G ( ) )
Positive
0.5
K 100
410
G1
j j
997.506 1000
60
49.875
40
Re( G1( ) )
20
0
210
0.1 0.11
1000
j 1
j 1
R 1
C 0.01
1 100
R C
-3dB
10
20 log G( )
20
30
0.1
10
100
1 10
0.5
( )
1
1.5
0.1
10
100
1 10
Phase shift:
ps G
Assume
K 2
180
G ( s)
s ( 1 s) 1
Next, choose a frequency range for the plots (use powers of 10 for convenient plotting):
lowest frequency (in Hz):
start .01
end 100
step size:
start 1
r log
end N
i 0 N range variable:
N 50
number of points:
i r
i end 10
si j i
i r
i end 10
si j i
100
20 log G s i
0
0
100
200
0.01
0.1
10
100
10
100
ps G i
180
0.01
0.1
1
i
r
M p
n 1 2
G r
0.707
1
2 1 2
0.707
r
M p
n 1 2
G r
0.707
1
2 1 2
0.707
K 2
K
j j 1 j 2
Bode1 20 log G
20
20
0.5
1.5
Bode2 20 log T
1 G
10
0
Bode2( )
10
20
0.5
1.5
Given
20 log T( w)
5.282
wr Find ( w)
wr 0.813
Mpw 1
Given
20 log ( Mpw)
5.282
10
0
Bode2( )
10
20
0.5
1.5
Given
Mpw
0
Bode2( )
10
Find
0.284
20
wn .1
Given
wr
wn 1 2
wn Find ( wn )
wn 0.888
0.5
1.5
Performance Specification
In the Frequency Domain
GH1
j 0.5 j 1 j 1
6
Frequency Response
Methods Using
MATLAB
Frequency Response
Methods Using
MATLAB
Bode Plots
Bode plot is the representation of the magnitude and phase of G(j*w) (where the
frequency vector w contains only positive frequencies).
To see the Bode plot of a transfer function, you can use the MATLAB
bode
command.
For example,
bode(50,[1 9 30 40])
displays the Bode plots for the
transfer function:
50 / (s^3 + 9 s^2 + 30 s + 40)
The gain margin is defined as the change in open loop gain required to make the
system unstable. Systems with greater gain margins can withstand greater changes in
system parameters before becoming unstable in closed loop. Keep in mind that
unity gain in magnitude is equal to a gain of zero in dB.
The phase margin is defined as the change in open loop phase shift required to make
a closed loop system unstable.
The phase margin is the difference in phase between the phase curve and -180 deg at
the point corresponding to the frequency that gives us a gain of 0dB (the gain cross
over frequency, Wgc).
Likewise, the gain margin is the difference between the magnitude curve and 0dB at
the point corresponding to the frequency that gives us a phase of -180 deg (the phase
cross over frequency, Wpc).
-180
Phase shift:
ps G
Assume
K 2
180
G ( s)
s ( 1 s) 1
Next, choose a frequency range for the plots (use powers of 10 for convenient plotting):
lowest frequency (in Hz):
start .01
end 100
step size:
start 1
r log
end N
i 0 N range variable:
N 50
number of points:
i r
i end 10
si j i
c root db G c c
c 1.193
pm ps G c 180
pm 18.265 degrees
Gain Margin
Now using the phase angle plot, estimate the frequency at which the phase shift crosses 180 degrees:
gm 1.8
Solve for at the phase shift point of 180 degrees:
gm root ps G gm 180 gm
gm 1.732
Calculate the gain margin:
gm db G gm
gm 6.021
Looking at the roots, we find that we have no open loop poles in the right half plane and therefore no
closed-loop poles in the right half plane if there are no Nyquist encirclements of -1. Now, how much
can we vary the gain before this system becomes unstable in closed loop?
The open-loop system represented by this plot will become unstable in closed loop if the gain is
increased past a certain boundary.
j 1
s ( w) j w
f ( w) 1
50 4.6
3
s ( w) 9 s ( w) 30 s ( w) 40
5
Im( G( w) )
0
2
Re( G( w) )
the zeros of 1 + G(s)H(s) are the poles of the closed-loop transfer function
the poles of 1 + G(s)H(s) are the poles of the open-loop transfer function.
Z = the number of right half-plane (positive, real) poles of the closed-loop system
Z=P+N
where G(s) is :
s^2 + 10 s + 24
--------------s^2 - 8 s + 15
j 1
s ( w) j w
G( w)
s ( w) 10 s ( w) 24
s ( w) 8 s ( w) 15
2
Im( G( w) )
0
0
Re( G( w) )
T j
1 G j
1
Mpw
2 1
G
0.707
u j v
G j
1 G j
u jv
u v
1 u jv
( 1 u) v
1M
2
2
1M
1M
45000
s ( s 2) ( s 30)
The frequency range defined by the next two equations provides a logarithmic frequency scale
running from 1 to 100. You can change this range by editing the definitions for m and m:
.02 m
m 0 100
m 10
Now enter a value for M to define the closed-loop magnitude contour that will be plotted.
M 1.1
Calculate the points on the M-circle:
MCm
M2 1
M
2
M 1
exp 2 j .01 m
Im G j m
Im MCm
0
Re G j m Re MCm 1
j j 1 0.2 j 1
Mpw 2.5
dB
r 0.8
-3dB
-142 deg
-72 deg
wr=0.8
Mpw
0.64
2
j j j 1
dB
Mpw 2.8
r 0.88
From equation
Mpw
1
2 1
GM
0.18
PM
GM
PM
Examples - Bode
Examples - Bode
Examples - Nichols
Examples - Nichols