Chapter 13: Measurement

Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be
able to
Determine what needs to be measured to
address a research question or hypothesis
Distinguish levels of scale measurement
Know how to form an index or composite
measure
List the three criteria for good measurement
Perform a basic assessment of scale
reliability and validity
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Introduction
Before the measurement process can
be defined, will have to decide exactly
what needs to be done. We will use The decision statement
Corresponding research questions and
Research hypotheses

Then decide what concepts need to be

measured in a given project.
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Measurement
Process of describing some property of a
phenomenon of interest, usually by
assigning numbers in a reliable and valid
way.
Researcher must have a rule for assigning
a number to an observation in a way that
provides an accurate description.
The way instructors assign students grades.
Some scales may better distinguish students.

All measurement, particularly in the social

sciences, contains error.
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Measurement

Concept
Problem definition process should suggest
the concepts that must be measured.
Concept is a generalized idea about a class
of objects, attributes, occurrences, or
processes.
Concrete concepts for example- age,
education present few problems in either
definition or measurement.
Abstract concepts like loyalty, customer
satisfaction are more difficult to both define
and measure
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Operational Definitions
Researchers measure concepts through a process
known as Operationalization.
Specifies what the researcher must do to measure the
concept under investigation.

For example, customer satisfaction refers to the minimum

number of product returns.

Identifying scales that correspond to variance in the

concept.

Scales- a device providing a range of values that

correspond to different values in a concept being
measured.
Scales provide correspondence rules that indicate some true
value of a concept.

Construct used to refer to concepts measured with

multiple variables.
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Media Skepticism: Conceptual

Definition
Media skepticism - The degree to which
individuals are skeptical toward the
reality presented in the mass media.
Media
skepticism
varies
across
individuals, from those who are mildly
skeptical and accept most of what they
see and hear in the media to those who
completely discount and disbelieve the
facts, values, and portrayal of reality in
the media.
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Media Skepticism: Operational

Definition
Please tell me how true each
statement is about the media. Is it
very true, not very true, or not at all
true?
1. The program was not very accurate in its
portrayal of the problem.
2. Most of the story was staged for
entertainment purposes.
3. The presentation was biased and unfair.
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Levels of Scale Measurement

Important because it determines the
mathematical
comparisons
that
are
allowable.
The four levels of scale measurement are
Nominal: Uniquely classifies
Ordinal: Uniquely classifies & Preserves order
Interval: Uniquely classifies, Preserves order &
Equal intervals
Ratio: Natural zero

Each
type
offers
the
researcher
progressively more power in analyzing and
testing the validity of a scale.
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Nominal Scale
Represent
the
most
elementary
level
of
measurement.
Values are assigned to an object for identification or
classification purposes only.
The value can be, but does not have to be, a
number.
Business researchers use nominal scales quite
often.
Suppose Beximco Pharmaceuticals was experimenting
with 03 different types of sweeteners (cane sugar, corn
syrup, or fruit extract) for the pediatric syrup.
The researchers would like the experiment to be blind,
so when subjects are asked to taste one of the three,
the syrups are labeled A, B, or C, not cane sugar, corn
syrup, or fruit extract.
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Nominal Scale
Nominal scaling is arbitrary meaning
each label can be assigned to any of
the categories without introducing
error.
Athletes wear nominal numbers on their
jerseys.

In sum, nominal scale properties

mean the numbering system simply
identifies things.
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Ordinal Scales
Ranking scales allowing things to be
arranged based on how much of
some concept they possess.
Research participants often are asked to
rank things based on preference.
So, preference is the concept, and the
ordinal scale lists the options from most
to least preferred, or vice versa.

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Interval Scale
Scales that have both nominal and
ordinal properties,
Also
capture
information
about
differences in quantities of a concept
from one observation to the next.
A sales manager know that a particular
salesperson outperformed a colleague, but
the manager would know by how much.
Consumer Price Index (Base 100)
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Ratio Scale
Represent the highest form of measurement
Have all the properties of interval scales
with the additional attribute of absolute
quantities.
Interval scales possess only relative
meaning, whereas ratio scales represent
absolute meaning.
An
absolute
zero
is
the
defining
characteristic differentiating between ratio
and interval scales.
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Mathematical and Statistical Analysis

of Scales
Discrete measures are those that take on only
one of a finite number of values.
Common discrete scales include any yes-or-no
response that can be coded 1 & 2.

Nominal and ordinal scales are discrete

measures.
The central tendency of discrete measures is
best captured by the mode.
Continuous measures are those assigning
values anywhere along some scale range.
Corresponds to the intensity of some concept.
Ratio measures are continuous measures.
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17

Index Measures
Multi-item instruments for measuring a
construct are called index measures, or
composite measures.
Index measure: Assigns a value based on how
much of the concept being measured is
associated with an observation.
Indexes often are formed by putting several
variables together.
For example, a social class index might be based
on
three
weighted
variables:
occupation,
education, and area of residence.
The American Consumer Satisfaction Index shows
how satisfied American consumers are based on
an index of satisfaction scores.
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Index Measures
Composite measures: Assigns a
value based on a mathematical
derivation of multiple variables.
For example, salesperson satisfaction
may be measured by combining
questions such as How satisfied are you
with your job, prospect, security etc.?

For most practical applications,

composite measures and indexes are
computed in the same way.
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Computing Scale Values

Summated Scale: A scale created by simply
summing (adding together) the response to each
item making up the composite measure.

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Three Criteria for Good Measurement

Reliability:
An indicator of a measures internal
consistency.
Consistency
is
the
key
to
understanding reliability.
A measure is reliable when different
attempts
at
measuring
something
converge on the same result.
Test conducted by BUET for Fly ash free
Cement.
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Reliability
Internal consistency: Represents a measures
homogeneity.
An attempt to measure trustworthiness may
require asking several similar but not identical
questions.
Can be measured by correlating scores on
subsets of items making up a scale.
Split-half method: Assesses internal consistency
by checking the results of one-half of a set of
scaled items against the results from the other
half.
The two scale halves should produce similar
scores and correlate highly.
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Reliability
Test-retest method: Administering
the same scale or measure to the
same respondents at two separate
points in time to test for stability.

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Validity
The accuracy of a measure or the extent to
which a score truthfully represents a concept.
A driver is clocked at 83 mph in a 55 mph zone,
but the same radar gun aimed at a house
registers 28 mph.

Establishing validity: There are four basic

approaches to establishing validity Face validity: A scale logically reflects the
concept being measured.
Content validity: The degree that a measure
covers the domain of interest
Criterion validity: The ability of a measure to
correlate with other standard measures of similar
criteria.
Construct
validity:
Consists
of
several
components
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Reliability vs. Validity

Reliability is a necessary but not
sufficient condition for validity. A
reliable scale may not be valid.

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Sensitivity
An instruments ability to accurately
measure variability in a concept.
Instead of using agree or disagree, in a
scale use of strongly agree, mildly
agree, neither agree nor disagree,
mildly disagree, and strongly disagree
will increase the scales sensitivity.

Sensitivity is generally increased by

adding more response points or adding
scale items.
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End