2

1.

1.1

Outline
Introduction
1.Periodic Analog Signals
2.Composite Signals and Periodicity
3.Fourier Analysis
4.Transmission Impairment
0.

1.2

Data Communications
Let us take a
brief look at the
evolution of
communication
technology

1.3

Data must be transformed to

electromagnetic signals in order to be
transmitted.

1.4

Analog and Digital Signals

Signals can be analog or digital.

Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range.

Digital signals can have only a limited 1

number of values.

1.5

are continuous and take continuous values

have discrete states and take discrete

values

Comparison of analog and digital signals

1.6

1.PERIODICANALOGSIGNALS
In data communications, we commonly use periodic
analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals.
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or
composite2. A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite3
periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves.

Topics discussed:
Sine Wave
Wavelength
Time and Frequency Domain
Composite Signals
Bandwidth
1.7

Sine waveform: Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes

1.8

Frequency and period are the inverse4 of

each other.

Units of period and frequency

1.9

Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,

but different frequencies

1.10

Example-1
1.The power we use at home has a
frequency of 606 Hz. The period of this
sine wave can be determined as follows:
7

2.The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is

its frequency in kilohertz?
8

1.11

Frequency

Frequency is the rate of change with respect

to time.
Change in a short span of time means high9
frequency.
Change over a long span of time means
low10 frequency.

If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero11
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.
1.12

Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.

1.13

Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency, but
different phases12

1.14

Example-2
A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect
to time 0. What is its phase in degrees and
radians?
Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360.
Therefore, 1/6 cycle is:
13
1.15

Wavelength and period

fre

Time
1.16

Space

e
u
q

y
c
n

The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

A complete sine wave in the time domain can be

represented by one single spike in the frequency14 domain.
1.17

Example-3
The frequency15 domain is more compact
and useful when we are dealing with more
than one sine wave.
For example, the following figure shows
three sine waves, each with different
amplitude and frequency. All can be
represented by three spikes in the
frequency16 domain.
1.18

The time17 domain and frequency18 domain representation of

three19 sine waves

1.19

2. Composite Signals and

Periodicity

1.20

A single-frequency sine wave is not

useful in data communications
We need to send a composite signals
carrying useful information.
According to Fourier analysis, any
composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves20 with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.

Composite Signals and

Periodicity

1.21

If the composite signal is periodic,

the decomposition gives a series of
signals with discrete21 frequencies.
If the composite signal is
nonperiodic, the decomposition
gives a combination of sine waves
with continuous22 frequencies.

Example-4
The figure shows a periodic composite signal with
frequency f.

1.22

The analysis of this signal can give us a good

understanding of how to decompose23 signals.

Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and

frequency domains

1.23

Example-5
This figure shows a nonperiodic composite signal.

It can be the signal created by a microphone or a telephone

set when a word or two is pronounced. In this case, the
composite signal cannot be periodic24, because that implies
that we are repeating the same word or words with exactly
the same tone.
1.24

Bandwidth and Signal

Frequency
The
bandwidth of a composite signal is the
difference25 between the highest and the
lowest frequencies contained in that signal.

1.25

Example-6
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves
with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what
is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all
components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then
B= . 27
The spectrum has 528
spikes, at

100, 300,

500, 700, 90029 Hz .

1.26

Example-7
A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest
frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw
the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the
same amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then
30
fl=

1.27

Example-8
A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200
kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an
amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the signal.
Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 4031 kHz and the highest at 24032
kHz.

1.28

Example-9
An example of a nonperiodic composite signal is
the signal propagated by an AM or FM radio
station. Each AM radio station is assigned a 10-kHz
bandwidth. The total bandwidth dedicated to AM
radio ranges from 530 to 1700 kHz. Each FM radio
station is assigned a 200-kHz bandwidth. The total
bandwidth dedicated to FM radio ranges from 88 to
108 MHz.

1.29

Example-10
Another example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the
signal received by an old-fashioned analog black-and-white
TV. A TV screen is made up of pixels. If we assume a
resolution of 525 700, we have 367,500 pixels per screen. If
we scan the screen 30 times per second, this is 367,500 30
= 1102500033 pixels per second. The worst-case scenario is
alternating black and white pixels. We can send 2 pixels per
cycle. Therefore, we need 11025000/2=551250034 cycles per
second, or Hz. The bandwidth needed is 5.5125 MHz.

1.30

3. Fourier Analysis

Fourier analysis is a tool that maps a

time domain signal to a frequency
domain signal and vice versa.

1.31

Fourier Series

1.32

Every composite periodic35 signal can be

represented with a series of sine and
cosine functions.
The functions are integral harmonics of
the fundamental frequency f of the
composite signal.
Using the series we can decompose any
periodic signal into its harmonics36.

Fourier Series

1.33

Examples of Signals and the

Fourier Series Representation

1.34

Sawtooth Signal

1.35

Fourier Transform

1.36

Fourier Transform gives the frequency

domain of a nonperiodic37 time domain
signal. Example:

Inverse Fourier Transform

1.37

Time limited and Band limited

Signals

1.38

A time limited signal is a signal for

which the amplitude s(t) = 0 for t >
T1 and t < T2

A band limited signal is a signal for

which the amplitude S(f) = 0 for f >
F1 and f < F2

The time and frequency domains of periodic and nonperiodic

digital signals

1.39

4.TRANSMISSIONIMPAIRMENT
Signals travel through transmission media, which are
not perfect. The imperfection causes signal
impairment. This means that the signal at the
beginning of the medium is not the same as the
signal at the end38 of the medium. What is sent is not
what is received39 Three causes of impairment are
attenuation41, distortion42, and noise43.

Topics discussed in this section:

Attenuation
Distortion
Noise
1.40

Causes of impairment

1.41

Attenuation

1.42

Means loss of energy -> weaker

signal
When a signal travels through a
medium it loses energy44 overcoming
the resistance of the medium
Amplifiers45 are used to compensate
for this loss of energy by amplifying
the signal.

Measurement of Attenuation

To show the loss or gain of energy the

unit decibel is used:
dB = 10log10P2/P1
P1 - input signal
P2 - output signal

1.43

Example-11
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission
medium and its power is reduced to one-half. This
means that P2 is (1/2)P1. In this case, the
attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half 46

the power.
1.44

Example-12
A signal travels through an amplifier, and its
power is increased 10 times. This means that P 2
= 10P1 . In this case, the amplification (gain of
power) can be calculated as

1.45

Example-13
One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the
changes in the strength of a signal is that decibel numbers
can be added47 (or subtracted) when we are measuring signal
strength through several points (cascading). In this figure a
signal travels from point 1 to point 4. In this case, the decibel
value can be calculated as:
dB=

1.46

48

Example-14
Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal
power in milliwatts49 In this case, it is referred to as
dBm and is calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm , where
Pm is the power in milliwatts. Calculate the power of
a signal with dBm = 30.
Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as:
.. 50
1.47

Example-15
The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per
kilometer (dB/km). If the signal at the beginning of a
cable with 0.3 dB/km has a power of 2 mW, what is
the power of the signal at 5 km?
Solution
Since dB is additive, the total loss in the cable in decibels is 5
(0.3) = 1.5 dB. We can calculate the power as:

51
1.48

Distortion

1.49

Means that the signal changes52 its form or

shape
Distortion occurs in composite53 signals
Each frequency component has its own
propagation speed traveling through a
medium.
The different components therefore arrive
with different delays at the receiver.
That means that the signals have different
phases at the receiver than they did at the
source.

Distortion

1.50

Noise

There are different types of noise

1.51

Thermal - random noise of electrons in the wire

creates an extra signal

Induced - from motors and appliances, devices act
are transmitter antenna and medium as receiving
antenna.
Crosstalk - same as above but between two wires.
Impulse - Spikes that result from power lines,
lightning, etc.

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

1.52

To measure the quality of a system the

SNR is often used. It indicates the
strength of the signal wrt the noise power
in the system.
It is the ratio54 between two powers.
It is usually given in dB and referred to as
SNRdB.

Example-16
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the
noise is 1W; what are the values of SNR and
SNRdB ?

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless 55

channel are:

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

1.53

Two cases of SNR: a high56 SNR and a low 57 SNR

1.54

References

1.55

Forouzan, B. , Data Communications and

Networking, 4th Edition. McGraw-Hill,
Sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.4

Blake, R. , Electronic Communication

Systems, 2nd Edition.Delmar, Thomson
Learning, Ch. 3, 4 and 15