Chapter 4 BR

Chapter 4
Modeling of Nonlinear Load

Tutorial on Harmonics Modeling and Simulation
Contributors: S. Tsai, Y. Liu, and G. W. Chang
IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

June 24-28, 2007
Conferncia Brasileira de Qualidade de Energia
Santos, So Paulo, Agosto 5-8, 2007
Chapter outline
Introduction
Nonlinear magnetic core sources
Arc furnace
3-phase line commuted converters
Static var compensator
Cycloconverter

June 24-28, 2007
Introduction
The purpose of harmonic studies is to quantify

the distortion in voltage and/or current waveforms
at various locations in a power system.
One important step in harmonic studies is to

characterize and to model harmonic-generating
sources.
Causes of power system harmonics
Nonlinear voltage-current characteristics

Non-sinusoidal winding distribution
Periodic or aperiodic switching devices
Combinations of above

June 24-28, 2007
Introduction (cont.)
In the following, we will present the harmonics

for each devices in the following sequence:
1. Harmonic characteristics
2. Harmonic models and assumptions
3. Discussion of each model

June 24-28, 2007
Chapter outline
Introduction
Arc furnace
Cycloconverter

June 24-28, 2007
Nonlinear Magnetic Core Sources
Harmonics characteristics
Harmonics model for transformers
Harmonics model for rotating machines

June 24-28, 2007
Harmonics characteristics of iron-core

reactors and transformers
Causes of harmonics generation

Saturation effects
Over-excitation
temporary over-voltage caused by reactive power unbalance

unbalanced transformer load
asymmetric saturation caused by low frequency magnetizing current
transformer energization
Symmetric core saturation generates odd harmonics

Asymmetric core saturation generates both odd and even
harmonics
The overall amount of harmonics generated depends on
the saturation level of the magnetic core
the structure and configuration of the transformer

June 24-28, 2007
Harmonic models for transformers
Harmonic models for a transformer:
equivalent circuit model

differential equation model
duality-based model
GIC (geomagnetically induced currents) saturation
model

June 24-28, 2007
Equivalent circuit model (transformer)
In time domain, a single

phase transformer can be
represented by an
equivalent circuit referring all
impedances to one side of
the transformer
The core saturation is
modeled using a piecewise
linear approximation of
saturation
This model is increasingly
available in time domain
circuit simulation packages.
9

June 24-28, 2007
Differential equation model (transformer)
The differential equations describe the relationships between
v1 R11 R12
v R
2 21 R22

v N R N1 R N 2
L11 L12
L
L22
21

L N1 L N 2
winding voltages
winding currents
winding resistance
winding turns
magneto-motive forces
mutual fluxes
leakage fluxes
reluctances
R1N
R2 N
R NN
i1
i
2

i
N
L1N
i1
L2 N d i 2
dt
L NN
i
N
Saturation, hysteresis, and eddy current effects can be well

modeled.
The models are suitable for transient studies. They may also
be used to simulate the harmonic generation behavior of
power transformers.
10

June 24-28, 2007
Duality-based model (transformer)
Duality-based models are

necessary to represent multilegged transformers
Its parameters may be
derived from experiment data
and a nonlinear inductance
may be used to model the
core saturation
Duality-based models are
suitable for simulation of
power system low-frequency
transients. They can also be
used to study the harmonic
generation behaviors
11
Magnetic circuit
Electric circuit
Magnetomotive
Force (FMM) Ni
Electromotive Force
(FEM) E
Flux
Current I
Reluctance
Resistance R
Permeance
1/
Conductance 1 / R
Flux density
Current density
Magnetizing force
H
Potential difference
V
B / A
J I/A

June 24-28, 2007
GIC saturation model (transformer)
Geomagnetically induced currents

GIC bias can cause heavy half cycle
saturation
the flux paths in and between core,
tank and air gaps should be
accounted
A detailed model based on 3D finite

element calculation may be
necessary.
Simplified equivalent magnetic circuit
model of a single-phase shell-type
transformer is shown.
An iterative program can be used to
solve the circuitry so that nonlinearity
of the circuitry components is
considered.
12
Rc2
Rc1
Ra1
Ra4
AC
DC
Ra4
Ra3
Rc3
Rt4
Rc2

June 24-28, 2007
Rt3
Rotating machines
Harmonic models for synchronous machine
Harmonic models for Induction machine
13

June 24-28, 2007
Synchronous machines
Harmonics origins:
Non-sinusoidal flux distribution
The resulting voltage harmonics are odd and usually

minimized in the machines design stage and can be
negligible.
Frequency conversion process
Caused under unbalanced conditions
Saturation
Saturation occurs in the stator and rotor core, and in the

stator and rotor teeth. In large generator, this can be
neglected.
Harmonic models
under balanced condition, a single-phase inductance is
sufficient
under unbalanced conditions, a impedance matrix is
necessary
14

June 24-28, 2007
Balanced harmonic analysis
For balanced (single phase) harmonic analysis, a

synchronous machine was often represented by a
single approximation of inductance
Lh h L"d L"q / 2
h:" harmonic order

L
d: direct sub-transient inductance
"
Lq: quadrature sub-transient inductance
A more complex model
Z h h a R neg jhX neg
a: 0.5-1.5 (accounting for skin effect and eddy current

losses)
Rneg and Xneg are the negative sequence resistance and
reactance at fundamental frequency
15

June 24-28, 2007
Unbalanced harmonic analysis
The balanced three-phase coupled matrix model can be

used for unbalanced network analysis
Zs
Z h Z m
Z m
Zm
Zs
Zm
Zm
Z m
Z s
Zs=(Zo+2Zneg)/3
Zm=(ZoZneg)/3
Zo and Zneg are zero and negative sequence impedance at h th

harmonic order
If the synchronous machine stator is not precisely balanced,

the self and/or mutual impedance will be unequal.
16

June 24-28, 2007
Induction motors
Harmonics can be generated from

Non-sinusoidal stator winding distribution
Can be minimized during the design stage
Transients
Harmonics are induced during cold-start or load changing
The above-mentioned phenomenon can generally be

neglected
The primary contribution of induction motors is to

act as impedances to harmonic excitation
The motor can be modeled as
impedance for balanced systems, or
a three-phase coupled matrix for unbalanced systems
17

June 24-28, 2007
Harmonic models for induction motor
Balanced Condition
Generalized Double Cage Model
Equivalent T Model
Unbalanced Condition
18

June 24-28, 2007
Generalized Double Cage Model for

Induction Motor
Stator
Rs
mutual reactance of the 2 rotor cages

jXs
jXr
R1(s)
R2(s)
jX1
jX2
jXm
Rc
Excitation branch
2 rotor cages
At the h-th harmonic order, the equivalent circuit can be

obtained by multiplying h with each of the reactance.
19

June 24-28, 2007
Equivalent T model for Induction Motor

Rs
jhXs
jhXr
Rc
jhXm
Rr
sh
sh
h 1 s
h
s is the full load slip at fundamental frequency, and h is the

harmonic order
- is taken for positive sequence models
+ is taken for negative sequence models.
20

June 24-28, 2007
Unbalanced model for Induction

Motor
The balanced three-phase coupled matrix model can be used for unbalanced
network analysis
Zs=(Zo+2Zpos)/3
Zm=(ZoZpos)/3
Zs
Z h Z m
Z m
Zm
Zs
Zm
Zm
Z m
Z s
Zo and Zpos are zero and positive sequence impedance at h th harmonic order
Z0 can be determined from
Rs0
jXs0
Rm0
21
0.5Rr0
(-2+3s)
Rm0
0.5Rr0
(4-3s)
jXm0
2
jXr0
2
jXm0
2
jXr0
2

June 24-28, 2007
Chapter outline
Introduction
Arc furnace
Cycloconverter
22

June 24-28, 2007
Arc furnace harmonic sources
Types:
AC furnace
DC furnace
DC arc furnace are mostly determined by its

AC/DC converter and the characteristic is more
predictable, here we only focus on AC arc
furnaces
23

June 24-28, 2007
Characteristics of Harmonics Generated by

Arc Furnaces
The nature of the steel melting process is

uncontrollable, current harmonics generated by
arc furnaces are unpredictable and random.
Current chopping and igniting in each half cycle
of the supply voltage, arc furnaces generate a
wide range of harmonic frequencies
(a)
(b)
24

June 24-28, 2007
Harmonics Models for Arc Furnace
Nonlinear resistance model

Current source model
Voltage source model
Nonlinear time varying voltage source model
Nonlinear time varying resistance models
Frequency domain models
Power balance model
25

June 24-28, 2007
Nonlinear resistance model

(a)
simplified to
modeled as
R1 is a positive resistor
R2 is a negative resistor
AC clamper is a current-controlled switch
It is a primitive model and does not consider the time-varying
characteristic of arc furnaces.
26

June 24-28, 2007
Typically, an EAF is modeled as a current source for

harmonic studies. The source current can be represented
by its Fourier series
n 1
n0
i L t a n sin nt bn cos nt
an and bn can be selected as a function of

measurement
probability distributions
proportion of the reactive power fluctuations to the active
power fluctuations.
This model can be used to size filter components and

evaluate the voltage distortions resulting from the harmonic
current injected into the system.
27

June 24-28, 2007
Voltage source model
The voltage source model for arc furnaces is a

Thevenin equivalent circuit.
The equivalent impedance is the furnace load
impedance (including the electrodes)
The voltage source is modeled in different ways:
form it by major harmonic components that are known

empirically
account for stochastic characteristics of the arc furnace
and model the voltage source as square waves with
modulated amplitude. A new value for the voltage
amplitude is generated after every zero-crossings of the
arc current when the arc reignites
28

June 24-28, 2007
Nonlinear time varying voltage source

model
This model is actually a voltage source model

The arc voltage is defined as a function of the arc
length
Va l0 k t Vao l0
Vao :arc voltage corresponding to the reference arc length
lo,
k(t): arc length time variations
The time variation of the arc length is modeled with

deterministic or stochastic laws.
Deterministic:
Stochastic:
l t l o Dl 2 1 sin t
l t lo R t
29

June 24-28, 2007
Nonlinear time varying resistance models
During normal operation, the arc resistance can be

modeled to follow an approximate Gaussian
distribution
Rarc R 2 ln RAND1 cos 2RAND2
is the variance which is determined by short-term

perceptibility flicker index Pst
Another time varying resistance

model:
2
R1
Vig
Vig2
2
Vex
P
R2
R2
R1: arc furnace positive resistance and R2 negative resistance

P: short-term power consumed by the arc furnace
Vig and Vex are arc ignition and extinction voltages
30

June 24-28, 2007
Power balance model

K3 2
dr
K1 r K 2 r
i
m
2
dt r
n
r is the arc radius

exponent n is selected according to the arc
cooling environment, n=0, 1, or 2
recommended values for exponent m are 0, 1
and 2
K1, K2 and K3 are constants
31

June 24-28, 2007
Chapter outline
Introduction
Arc furnace
Cycloconverter
32

June 24-28, 2007
Three-phase line commuted converters
Line-commutated converter is mostly usual

operated as a six-pulse converter or configured
in parallel arrangements for high-pulse
operations
Typical applications of converters can be found in
AC motor drive, DC motor drive and HVDC link
33

June 24-28, 2007
Harmonics Characteristics
Under balanced condition with constant output current and

assuming zero firing angle and no commutation overlap, phase a
current is
ia (t ) ( 2 I1 / h) sin(h1t h )
h
h = 1, 5, 7, 11, 13, ...

Characteristic harmonics generated by converters of any pulse
number are in the order of h pn 1
n = 1, 2, and p is the pulse number of the converter
For non-zero firing angle and non-zero commutation overlap, rms

value of each characteristic harmonic current can be determined
by
I h 6 I d F ( , ) /{h[cos cos( )]}
F(,) is an overlap function
34

June 24-28, 2007
Harmonic Models for the Three-Phase

Line-Commutated Converter
Harmonic models can be categorized as

frequency-domain based models
current source model

transfer function model
Norton-equivalent circuit model
harmonic-domain model
three-pulse model
time-domain based models
models by differential equations

state-space model
35

June 24-28, 2007
The most commonly used model for converter is to treat it

as known sources of harmonic currents with or without
phase angle information
I h I rated I h sp / I1 sp
h h sp h(1 1 sp )
Magnitudes of current harmonics injected into a bus are

determined from
the typical measured spectrum and
rated load current for the harmonic source (Irated)
Harmonic phase angles need to be included when multiple

sources are considered simultaneously for taking the
harmonic cancellation effect into account.
h, and a conventional load flow solution is needed for
providing the fundamental frequency phase angle, 1
36

June 24-28, 2007
Transfer Function Model
The simplified schematic circuit can be used to

describe the transfer function model of a converter
G: the ideal transfer function without considering
firing angle variation and commutation overlap
G,dc and G,ac, relate the dc and ac sides of the
converter
Vdc G , dcV , a, b, c
i G , ac i dc , a,b,c
Transfer functions can include the deviation terms

of the firing angle and commutation overlap
The effects of converter input voltage distortion or
unbalance and harmonic contents in the output dc
current can be modeled as well
37

June 24-28, 2007
Norton-Equivalent Circuit Model
The nonlinear relationship between

converter input currents and its terminal
voltages is I f (V )
I & V are harmonic vectors
If the harmonic contents are small, one
may linearize the dynamic relations
about the base operating point and
obtain: I = YJV + IN
YJ is the Norton admittance matrix
representing the linearization. It also
represents an approximation of the
converter response to variations in
its terminal voltage harmonics or
unbalance
IN = Ib - YJVb (Norton equivalent)
38

June 24-28, 2007
Harmonic-Domain Model
Under normal operation, the overall state of the converter is

specified by the angles of the state transition
These angles are the switching instants corresponding to the 6
firing angles and the 6 ends of commutation angles
The converter response to an applied terminal voltage is

characterized via convolutions in the harmonic domain
12
H 2H
The overall dc voltage Vd Vk , p p Vkh, p np
p 1
h 1 n 1
Vk,p: 12 voltage samples
p: square pulse sampling functions

H: the highest harmonic order under consideration
The converter input currents are obtained in the same

manner using the same sampling functions.
39

June 24-28, 2007
Chapter outline
Introduction
Arc furnace
Cycloconverter
40

June 24-28, 2007
Harmonics characteristics of TCR
Harmonic currents are generated for any conduction intervals

within the two firing angles
With the ideal supply voltage, the generated rms harmonic

currents
4V1
I h ( )
L R
cos sin(h ) h cos(h ) sin
h(h 1)
h = 3, 5, 7, , is the conduction angle, and LR is the

inductance of the reactor
41

June 24-28, 2007
Harmonics characteristics of TCR (cont.)
Three single-phase TCRs are usually in delta

connection, the triplen currents circulate within
the delta circuit and do not enter the power
system that supplies the TCRs.
When the single-phase TCR is supplied by a
non-sinusoidal input voltage v s (t ) Vh sin(ht h )
h
the current through the compensator is proved to be

the discontinuous current
V1

[cos(
h
cos(
h
)],
h
h
i (t ) h

0,
0t
and
t
42

June 24-28, 2007
Harmonic models for TCR
Harmonic models for TCR can be categorized as

frequency-domain based models
current source model

transfer function model
Norton-equivalent circuit model
time-domain based models
models by differential equations

state-space model
43

June 24-28, 2007
Current Source Model
i (t )
V1

[cos(
h
cos(
h
)],
h
h
h

0,
0t
and
t
by discrete Fourier analysis
i h (t ) I h sin(ht h )
h
44

June 24-28, 2007
Norton-Equivalent Model
The input voltage is unbalanced and no coupling

between different harmonics are assumed
Norton equivalence for the
harmonic power flow
analysis of the TCR for the
h-th harmonic
Yh eq ( jhLeq ) 1
Vh Vhh
45
h eq Vh /( jhLeq ) I h
I h I h h
Leq LR /( sin )

June 24-28, 2007
Transfer Function Model
Assume the power system is balanced and is

represented by a harmonic Thvenin equivalent
The voltage across the reactor and the TCR current can
be expressed as
VR s VS
I R YR VR YTCR VS
YTCR=YRS can be thought of TCR harmonic admittance

matrix or transfer function
46

June 24-28, 2007
Time-Domain Model
Model 1
dvc
0
1 v 0
dt
c
di ( 1 s ) 0 1
ic L
c
LS L R
S
dt
Model 2
Vs
di v R RT

i
dt L
L
47

June 24-28, 2007
Chapter outline
Introduction
Arc furnace
Cycloconverter
48

June 24-28, 2007
Harmonics Characteristics of
Cycloconverter
A cycloconverter generates very complex frequency

spectrum that includes sidebands of the
characteristic harmonics
Balanced three-phase outputs, the dominant

harmonic frequencies in input current for
6-pulse
f h ( pm 1) f i 2kf o
12-pulse f h ( pm 1) f i 6kf o
p = 6 or p= 12, and m = 1, 2, .
In general, the currents associated with the

sideband frequencies are relatively small and
harmless to the power system unless a sharply
tuned resonance occurs at that frequency.
49

June 24-28, 2007
Harmonic Models for the Cycloconverter
The harmonic frequencies generated by a

cycloconverter depend on its changed output
frequency, it is very difficult to eliminate them
completely
To date, the time-domain and current source

models are commonly used for modeling
harmonics
The harmonic currents injected into a power

system by cycloconverters still present a
challenge to both researchers and industrial
engineers.
50

June 24-28, 2007

Chapter 4 BR

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 4 BR

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 4

Modeling of Nonlinear Load

Contributors: S. Tsai, Y. Liu, and G. W. Chang

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

The purpose of harmonic studies is to quantify

One important step in harmonic studies is to

Nonlinear voltage-current characteristics

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

In the following, we will present the harmonics

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

Nonlinear Magnetic Core Sources

Harmonics model for transformers

Harmonics model for rotating machines

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

Harmonics characteristics of iron-core

Causes of harmonics generation

temporary over-voltage caused by reactive power unbalance

Symmetric core saturation generates odd harmonics

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

Harmonic models for transformers

Harmonic models for a transformer:

equivalent circuit model

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

Equivalent circuit model (transformer)

In time domain, a single

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

Differential equation model (transformer)

The differential equations describe the relationships between

Saturation, hysteresis, and eddy current effects can be well

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

Duality-based model (transformer)

Duality-based models are

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

GIC saturation model (transformer)

Geomagnetically induced currents

A detailed model based on 3D finite

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

Harmonic models for synchronous machine

Harmonic models for Induction machine

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

The resulting voltage harmonics are odd and usually

Frequency conversion process

Caused under unbalanced conditions

Saturation occurs in the stator and rotor core, and in the

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

Balanced harmonic analysis

For balanced (single phase) harmonic analysis, a

h:" harmonic order

A more complex model

Z h h a R neg jhX neg

a: 0.5-1.5 (accounting for skin effect and eddy current

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

Unbalanced harmonic analysis

The balanced three-phase coupled matrix model can be

Zo and Zneg are zero and negative sequence impedance at h th

If the synchronous machine stator is not precisely balanced,

IEEE PES General Meeting, Tampa FL

Harmonics can be generated from

Can be minimized during the design stage

Harmonics are induced during cold-start or load changing

The above-mentioned phenomenon can generally be