Cellular Worlds

MDSC 1001 PBL Problem 1

Tutor: Dr S. Chase

Group Members

Amelia Dwarika

Brennan Mc Intyre

Caroline Sam

Celine Rampaul

Christian Gonsalves

Christopher Lalloo

Estvan Ollivierra

Kadesh Ramlakhan

Keithtra Hepburn

Manisha Baldeosingh

Ogechi Akpaka

Samara St. John

Shanara Maharaj

Tricia Sinanan

Zachary Subran-Ganesh

List of Objectives
1.

Describe the ultrastructure of an animal cell.

2.

Describe the structure of the cell membrane.

3.

Describe the basic structure and properties of lipids.

4.

Relate the morphology and relative abundance of various cellular organelles

to the functions of the cell.

5.

Discuss the need for intra-cellular compartmentalisation and the basic

principles of intracellular metabolism.

6.

Discuss the different methods used in the study of cells and the preparation
of tissues.

Learning Objective 1
Describe the ultrastructure of an animal cell.

Source: Ultrastructure of a Eukaryotic Cell. (2015).Odekunle,

Abayome

Ultrastructure of an Animal Cell

Nuclear envelope: double lipid bi-layer membrane which surrounds the genetic
material and nucleolus in eukaryotic cells

Nucleus: contains most of the cell's genetic material, and controls the
activities of the cell by regulating gene expression.

Plasma membrane: surrounds the cytoplasm physically separating the

intracellular components from the extracellular ones.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum: has ribosomes attached to it where protein

synthesis takes place.

Ribosomes: large complex molecular machine which serves as the site of

biological protein synthesis.

Golgi apparatus: comprised of cup-shaped sacs that resemble deflated

balloons; is responsible for the final processing of proteins and lipids within
the cell.

Peroxisome: small membrane enclosed organelles that contain enzymes

involved in a variety of metabolic reactions including several aspects of energy
metabolism.

Ultrastructure of an Animal Cell

Intermediate filaments: one of the three types of cytoskeleton elements. The three components
work together to enhance both structural integrity, cell shape, and cell and organelle motility.

Microtubules: long, thin tubes of protein that make up the cytoskeleton.

Microfilament: highly versatile elements functioning incytokinesis,amoeboid movement and

changes in cell shape.

Microvilli: microscopic cellular membrane protrusions that increase the surface area of cells and
minimize any increase in volume, and are involved in a wide variety of functions
includingabsorption,secretion and cellular adhesion.

Centrioles: pair of organelles found in animal cells, which build the microtubules to form the
spindle during cell division.

Mitochondrion: surrounded by an envelope of which the inner membrane is folded to from

cristae where aerobic respiration takes place.

Lysosome: small vesicle containing hydrolytic enzymes, surrounded by a membrane.

Cytosol

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: does not have ribosomes associated with it; carries out various
metabolic reactions such as the synthesis of steroids.

Source: Ramesar, M., Jones, M., & Jones, G. (2011).Biology Unit 2 for CAPE Examinations.
Cambridge University Press.

Learning Objective 2
Describe the structure of the cell membrane.

The Structure of the Cell Membrane

The fluid mosaic model is used to describe how the cell membrane is structured.
The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with hydrophobic tails making up
the inside of the bilayer and hydrophilic heads pointing outwards.
The bilayer of the membrane is said to have a fluid consistency. The molecule
cholesterol is found in the membrane and it regulates the fluidity of the bilayer.
The membrane is called mosaic due to the presence of different proteins.
Proteins found in the cell membrane are

Integral proteins : embedded in the phospholipid bilayer

Peripheral proteins : found on either side of the phospholipid bilayer

Transmembrane proteins: found in the entire width of the two layers

Glycolipids and glycoproteins are also found in the cell membrane.

NB: In an electron micrograph, the cell membrane appears as 3 layers.

The Structure of the Cell Membrane

Reference: Difiores Atlas of Histology with Functional Correlations (11th Edition) by

Victor P Eroschenko.

Learning Objective 3
Describe the basic structure and properties of lipids.

The basic structure and properties of

lipids
Lipidsare biological molecules that are insoluble in water. They can be classified
into three major forms:
1.

Triglycerides

2.

Phospholipids

3.

Cholesterol

Triglycerides
The structure of a triglyceride can be described as three fatty acid chains
attached to one glycerol molecule by dehydration synthesis. Two major functions
include insulation and energy.

Phospholipids
The structure of phospholipids can be described as having two fatty acid chains
attached via a phospho-di-ester linkage to a phosphate molecule. Phospholipids
are both hydrophilic (water loving) at the phosphate head and hydrophobic
(water hating) at the tail; because of this property it is able to form a bilayer in
membranes.

Cholesterol
The structure of cholesterol can be described as having four hydrocarbon rings:
three of them are six-carbon rings and one of them is a five-carbon ring. It is a
waxy, fat-like substance that is found in all cells of the body.

Cholesterol
Cholesterol is needed to make hormones, vitamin D, and substances which help
us digest foods. Our body is able to manufacture all the cholesterol it needs.
However, cholesterol is also found in some of the foods we eat. Cholesterol
travels through your bloodstream in small packages called lipoproteins. These
packages are made of lipids on the inside and proteins on the outside.
There are two kinds of lipoproteins which carry cholesterol around our body:
low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL). Having
healthy levels of both types of lipoproteins is important.

LDL cholesterol sometimes is called bad cholesterol. A build-up of cholesterol

in the arteries is due to large amounts of LDL.

HDL cholesterol sometimes is called good cholesterol. This is because it

carries cholesterol from other parts of the body back to your liver which
removes the cholesterol from the body.

Source: http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Cholesterol.aspx

Learning Objective 4
Relate the morphology and relative abundance of various cellular
organelles to the functions of the cell.

Structure

Description & Function

Membrane boundary of cell; regulates the exchange of substances with a semipermeable phospholipid bilayer (hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail) It allows
small particles or particles with no charge to pass through.

Plasma Membrane

Proteins present in the structure - allow molecules to diffuse through, binding sites
that trigger cell responses.
Cholesterol - allows the communication of neighbouring cells through binding sites
and maintains fluidity of membrane.
Large structure surrounded by double membrane; species cellular

Nucleus

Stores DNA
Produces Ribosomes

Nucleolus

Granular body within nucleus; site of r-RNA synthesis (production of ribosomes)

Nuclear envelope

The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the

outermost portion of the nucleus. Both the inner and outer membranes of the
nuclear envelope are phospholipid bilayers. The nuclear envelope is punctuated with
pores that control the passage of ions, molecules, and RNA between the nucleoplasm
and cytoplasm.

Structure

Description & Function

Network of internal membranes: Smooth ER is a tubule network and rough ER is a

Endoplasmic reticulum
series of flattened stacks which contains ribosomes on its surface; site of membrane
(ER)
lipid & protein synthesis. Produces antibodies and enzymes.
Golgi Complex

Stacks of flattened membrane sacs; modifies, packages & secretes proteins. E.g.
Glycoproteins
Membranous sacs; contains enzymes to digest waste material and cellular debris.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses
or bacteria.

Vacuoles

Membranous sacs; transport and store water & other minerals vital to cells health.

Mitochondria

Sacs containing 2 membranes; The outer membrane covers the organelle and
contains it like a skin. The inner membrane folds over many times and creates
layered structures called cristae; site of Krebs cycle, electron transport system,
chemiosmosis.
ATP is produced here and the cristae creates a large surface area for maximum ATP
production.

Plastids
Microbodies or
Peroxisomes

Sac-like structures with internal thylakoid membranes; photosynthesis

Membranous sacs containing enzymes, contains enzymes that produce Hydrogen
peroxide as a by-product.
Uses oxygen to break down fats and forms bile acid

Structure
Chromosomes

Ribosomes

Description & Function

Composed of DNA-protein complex; contains genes
Found in the Nucleus
Granular organelles composed of RNA & protein; synthesize proteins
Carry them to the golgi body

Microtubules

Hollow tubes of tubulin; structural support for organelles of movement

Microfilaments

Solid, rodlike structures of actin, structural support

Centrioles

Small hollow cylinders; involved in cell division & anchors flagellae & cilia

Cilia

Short hair-like structures; movement, food intake, usually >>1 on a cell.

Cytoplasm

Fluid part called the cytosol; Contains cytoskeleton that gives the cell its shape,
Consists of dissolved nutrients that & aids to dissolve waste products.

Flagella

Long projections; cellular locomotion, usually 1-5 on a cell.

Learning Objective 5
Discuss the need for intra-cellular compartmentalisation and the basic
principles of cellular metabolism.

Intracellular Compartmentalisation
Compartments have 3 main roles:
1.

To establish physical boundaries for biological processes that enables the cell
to carry out different metabolic activities at the same time.

2.

To isolate the reaction happening in one organelle from affecting the rest of
the cell.

3.

To establish a specific location for which processes should occur.

Intracellular Metabolism

The basic principle of intracellular metabolism is to allow the eukaryotic cell

to carry out its function and vital process at the same time in order to
function as it should. This means that specialized organelles are formed.

Learning Objective 6
Discuss the different methods used in the study of cells and the
preparation of tissues.

Electron Microscopes
Transmission Electron
Microscope (TEM)

Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM)

Uses a voltage to pass an electron beam emitted by a cathode through

the sample

Produces 2D images
Resolving power 0.2nm

Produces images by detecting discharge of electrons from the

specimen

Produces 3D topographic (detailed) images

Resolving power 2nm

Tissue/Sample Preparation

Fixation: Preservation of sample at a specific point to prevent degradation

beyond that point

Cryofixation: Rapid freezing

Dehydration: Removing all aqueous solutions from sample using organic

solvents

Embedding: Infiltration of tissue with resin (as opposed to wax used for light
microscopy

Sectioning: Producing (cutting) a very thin section of the specimen. Typical

size 90nm

Staining: Uses heavy metals such as lead and uranium

Sputter coating: Very thin layer of electronically conducting material is used

to coat specimen. Done to prevent charging of the specimen.

Disadvantages

Electron microscopes are very expensive to buy and maintain

They require significant expertise and technical training in order to operate

The energy requirements for operation are high