12.

540 Principles of the

Global Positioning System
Lecture 03
Prof. Thomas Herring
Room 54-820A; 253-5941
tah@mit.edu

http://geoweb.mit.edu/~tah/12.540

Review
In last lecture we looked at conventional
methods of measuring coordinates
Triangulation, trilateration, and leveling
Astronomic measurements using
external bodies
Gravity field enters in these
determinations
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Gravitational potential
In spherical coordinates: need to solve
1 2
1

V
1 2V
(rV) 2
(sin ) 2 2
0
2
2
r r
r sin
r sin

This is Laplaces equation in spherical

coordinates
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Solution to gravity potential

The homogeneous form of this equation
is a classic partial differential equation.
In spherical coordinates solved by
separation of variables, r=radius,
=longitude and =co-latitude

V(r, , ) R(r)g( )h( )

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Solution in spherical
coordinates
The radial dependence of form rn or r-n
depending on whether inside or outside
body. N is an integer
Longitude dependence is sin(m) and
cos(m) where m is an integer
The colatitude dependence is more
difficult to solve
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Colatitude dependence
Solution for colatitude function
generates Legendre polynomials and
associated functions.
The polynomials occur when m=0 in
dependence. t=cos()
1 dn 2
n
Pn(t) n
(t
1)
2 n! dtn
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Legendre Functions
Po (t) 1
P1 (t) t
1 2
P2 (t) (3t 1)
2
1 3
P3 (t) (5t 3t)
2
1
P4 (t) (35t4 30t23)
8
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Low order
functions.
Arbitrary n
values are
generated by
recursive
algorithms
7

Associated Legendre
Functions
The associated functions satisfy the
following equation
m
d
Pnm(t) (1)m(1 t2 )m/2 m Pn(t)
dt

The formula for the polynomials,

Rodriques formula, can be substituted

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Associated functions
P00 (t) 1
P10 (t) t
P11 (t) (1 t2 )1/2
1 2
P20 (t) (3t 1)
2
P21 (t) 3t(1 t2 )1/2
P22 (t) 3(1 t2 )

Pnm(t): n is called
degree; m is order
m<=n. In some
areas, m can be
negative. In gravity
formulations m=>0

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/LegendrePolynomial.html
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Orthogonality conditions
The Legendre polynomials and
functions are orthogonal:
1

2
Pn' (t)Pn(t)dt 2n1n'n
1
1

2 (n m)!
Pn'm(t)Pnm(t)dt 2n1 (n m)!n'n
1

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Examples from Matlab

Matlab/Harmonics.m is a small matlab
program to plots the associated
functions and polynomials
Uses Matlab function: Legendre

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Polynomials

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Sectoral Harmonics m=n

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Normalized

2 (n m)!
2m1 (n m)!

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Surface harmonics
To represent field on surface of sphere;
surface harmonics are often used
2m1 (n m)!
Ynm( , )
Pnm( )eim
4 (n m)!

Be cautious of normalization. This is only one

of many normalizations

Complex
notation simple way of writing
cos(m) and sin(m)
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Surface harmonics
Code to generate figure on web
site

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ZonalTesseralsSectorial

Gravitational potential
The gravitational potential is given by:
V

G
dV
r

Where is density,
G is Gravitational constant 6.6732x10-11 m3kg1 -2
2kg-2)
s (N m
r is distance
The gradient of the potential is the
gravitational acceleration
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Spherical Harmonic
Expansion
The Gravitational potential can be written as a
series expansion

GM
V

r n0

n n

a
Pnm(cos ) Cnm cos(m ) Snm sin(m )
r m0

Cnm and Snm are called Stokes coefficients

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Stokes coefficients
The Cnm and Snm for the Earths potential
field can be obtained in a variety of ways.
One fundamental way is that 1/r expands as:
1 dn
n1 Pn(cos )
r n0 d

Where d is the distance to dM and d is the

distance to the external point, is the angle
the two vectors (figure next slide)
between
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1/r expansion

Pn(cos) can be expanded in

associated functions as function of ,

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Computing Stoke coefficients

Substituting the expression for 1/r and
converting to co-latitude and longitude
dependence yields:
4 n *
Pn( )
Ynm(, )Ynm(, )
2n 1 m0
GdM
dM n dn *
V
4
n1 Ynm(, )Ynm(, )
r
2n 1 n0 m0 d
The integral and summation can be reversed yielding
integrals for the Cnm and Snm Stokes coefficients.

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Low degree Stokes coefficients

By substituting into the previous
equation we obtain:

C10 GM zdM
C11 GM xdM

S11 GM ydM

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GM
C20
2z2 x2 y2dM
2
C21 GM xzdM S21 GM yzdM
GM
GM
2
2
C22
x y dM S22
xydM
4
2
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Moments of Inertia
Equation for moments of inertia are:
y2 z2dM

I xydM

xzdM

xydM
z2 x2dM
yzdM

xzdM
yzdM

x2 y2dM

The diagonal elements in increasing

magnitude are often labeled A B and C
with A and B very close in value
(sometimes simply A and C are used)
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Relationship between moments of inertia

and Stokes coefficients
With a little bit of algebra it is easy to
show that:
A B
C20 GM(
C)
2
1
C22 GM(B A)
4
1
S22 GMI12
2
C21 S21 are related to I13 and I 23
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Spherical harmonics
The Stokes coefficients can be written
as volume integrals
C00 = 1 if mass is correct
C10, C11, S11 = 0 if origin at center of
mass
C21 and S21 = 0 if Z-axis along maximum
moment of inertia
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Global coordinate systems

If the gravity field is expanded in
spherical harmonics then the coordinate
system can be realized by adopting a
frame in which certain Stokes
coefficients are zero.
What about before gravity field was well
known?
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Summary
Examined the spherical harmonic expansion of the
Earths potential field.
Low order harmonic coefficients set the coordinate.

Degree 1 = 0, Center of mass system;

Degree 2 give moments of inertia and the orientation can be
set from the directions of the maximum (and minimum)
moments of inertia. (Again these coefficients are computed
in one frame and the coefficients tell us how to transform into
frame with specific definition.) Not actually done in practice.

Next we look in more detail into how coordinate

systems are actually realized.

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