THE INDIVIDUAL

AND

LEARNING

Learning is something one does

for oneself.

SELF DEVELOPMENT

AND
LEARNING TO LEARN

The most effective ways of

learning
involve
conscious
mental
activities
such
as
checking,
self-testing
and
questioning.
These points emphasize
fact
that
whatever
activities of a trainer it is
learner who is really in
driving seat.

the
the
the
the

MAIN GROUPS OR SETS OF

LEARNING THEORY
Cognitive theories
Behaviorist
theories
Reinforcement theories
Social Learning
theories
Self Efficacy
Mental Processes
Experiential Learning theories

COGNITIVE

APPROACH

People use feedback on the

results of past behaviour to make
rational decisions about whether
to
maintain
successful
behaviours
or
modify
unsuccessful behaviour

COGNITIVE THEORIES
These theories focus on learning by what we
ordinarily describe as INSIGHT
Reflect the way in which we learn to recognize
Define problems or experiment to find solutions By trial and error
By deductive reasoning
By seeking information and help
By a combination of all three

COGNITIVE THEORY
Cognitive processes critical to learning :
Accommodation: the process of
changing our construction of the
world to correspond with our
experience in it (changes the
cognitive map)
Assimilation: is incorporation of
new experiences into existing
categories (fills details of the
map)

BEHAVIOURIST PSYCHOLOGY
Behaviourist approach to learning
defines learning as a relatively permanent
change in behaviour. Learning is
controlled by the environment (e.g., nature
of reinforcement received from the
environment)
Concentrates on the relationship
between stimuli and responses to stimuli.
0 People modify their responses in the

future according to whether the results of

their behaviour in the past have been good
or bad.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY
people are motivated to perform certain
behaviours because of past outcomes that
have resulted from those behaviours.
Several processes of conditioning applied to
social systemsPositive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement / Punishment
Learned Helplessness

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Is those events and consequences in the learning
situation are cognitively processed before they are
learned or influence behaviour
The processing of information leads to learning
and changes in behaviour
The consequences of behaviour (reinforcement or
punishment) influences the likelihood of that
behaviour in the future, but they do so as a result
of how they are perceived, interpreted and stored in
memory

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

People learn by observing other persons (or models)
whom they believe are credible and knowledgeable .
Behaviour that is reinforced or rewarded tends to
be repeated
Models behaviour or skill that is rewarded is
adopted by the observer
Learning new skills or behaviour comes from:
directly experiencing the consequences of using
behaviour or skill
The process of observing others and seeing the
consequences of their behaviour

SELF EFFICACY
Feelings about ones own

competency are reflected in Self

Efficacy
It is the judgment about whether
person can successfully learn
knowledge and skills

A Trainee with high self efficacy will

make that effort to learn in a training
program and most likely to persist
even if the environment is not
conducive to learning

SELF EFFICACY
MEANS OF INCREASING SELF - EFFICACY

Verbal Persuasion
Logical Verification
Modeling
Past accomplishments

EXPERIENTAL LEARNING CYCLE

CONCRETE
EXPERIENCE

ACTIVE
EXPERIMENTATION

(Learner examines possible solutions

or behaviour)

REFLECTIVE
OBSERVATIONS
(Learner rethinks through what
has occurred)

CONCEPTULISATION

(Integrate ones learning into

their conceptual framework
and then develop their own
implementation plan)

CONCRETE EXPERIENCE
STAGE

The most common form of learning by experience

The responsibility of training does not end at the

end of the training or when the person enters the
workplace

The trainer has the opportunity to evaluate the

training provided learning occurred at the work
place

Provides feedback to trainer to adapt and develop

training provision within the organization to provide
improved learning in the future

Learning through experience follows a sprial path

REFLECTIVE OBSERVATION
STAGE

Involves reviewing by observation

Can be CONSCIOUS or UNCONSCIOUS
Conscious reflecting can be through
performance or guidelines or even
formalised review sessions
Unconscious reflecting can be done
through people's experience and its
effects
Unconscious reflection helps learner
arrive at their own insight,in their own
way ,in their own time making their
reflections likely to remain with them
longer than if it was presented to them

CONCEPTUALISATION STAGE

Integrates ones learning into their conceptual framework

and they develop their own implementation plan or
interpretation

At this stage, one related ideas to experience

Trainer facilitates learner to conceptualise by providing

what they need viz. Time, Resources, Opportunities

Conceptualisation is a means to an end. NOT an end by

itself

Enables learners to take their experiences and build them

into theories so that they can use what they know to
created strategies for themselves for the future

ACTIVE EXPERIEMENTATION STAGE

Involves trying out things in a practical

manner

David Kolb's work can be traced back to

that famous dictum of Confucius around
450 BC:

"Tell me, and I will forget.

Show me, and I may remember,
Involve me and I will understand."

LEARNING CYCLE
HONEY AND MUMFORD

Have an experience (Activist)

Concrete Experience
Review the experience (Reflector)
Reflective observation
Conclude from the experience (Theorist)
Abstract conceptualisation
Plan the next step (Pragmatist)
Active experimentation

DIFFERENT LEARNING STYLES

The different learning styles of assimilation
and learning may be classified as follows:
ACTIVISTS

REFLECTORS
THEORISTS
PRAGMATISTS

ACTIVIST
Enjoys the new experience
and opportunities from
which they can learn.
Enjoys being involved.
Happy to be in the
limelight.
Prefers to be active rather
than sitting and listening.

REFLECTORS

Prefers to observe, think and assimilate information

before starting.
They like to review what has happened, what
they have learnt.
They prefer to reach decisions in their own time
and do not like to feel under pressure.

THEORISTS
Like to explore methodically, they

think problems through in a step by

step logical
way and and ask
questions.
They tend to be detached and
analytical.
They like to be intellectually
stretched and feel uncomfortable
with lateral thinking,
preferring
models and systems.

PRAGMATISTS
Like practical solutions and want to get in and
try things.
They dislike too much theory.
They like to experiment and search out new ideas
that they want to try out.
They act quickly and confidently, are very down
to earth and respond to problems as challenges.
Pragmatists are keen on trying out ideas,

STAKEHOLDERS IN
TRAINING
Participants
Organisation

Trainer

Training
Agency

Training
Department

Participants

Participate and contribute to all training

activities.
Set out personal learning objectives and
direct efforts to realise them.
Extend support to the training team in
achieving the programme objectives and
maintain learning environment.
Assist co-participants in realising their
learning objectives.

Organisations

Assist the training agency in identifying

training needs of their nominees.
Select
appropriate
participants
in
accordance
with
the
criteria
and
requirements set out by the training
agency.
Communicate expectations from the
programme to their nominees and the
training agency.

Organisations

Keep in regular contact with the training

agency to secure information on the
progress and performance of their
nominees, especially if it is a long-term
programme.
Provide appropriate opportunities and
support to their participants to facilitate
the transfer of training to the field
situation.
Maintain the performance or actions of
their
nominees
after
the
training
programme and necessary data to the
training agency.

Training Agency

Provide an environment that is conducive to learning,

including physical facilities.
Ensure effective coordination between the trainers and
the support staff associated with the delivery of the
programme.
Maintain contacts with the sponsoring agencies, especially
in a long-term programme and keep them informed of the
progress and performance of their nominees.
Maintain consistency between what it advocates in the
programme and what it practises in its own functioning.
Assist in the professional growth and development of the
training staff.
Maintain the training team; keep pace with the
developments in the field of training.
Appraise work (efficacy and comprehensiveness of
training delivered) on a regular basis.

Trainers

Key elements in the delivery of the

training

Training Department

Identify training needs for individuals,

departments and organisation.
Sell training programmes to the internal
customers (user departments)
Coordinate with training agency and
trainers to conduct training.
Provide infrastructure and organise
training programme.
Training follow-up and evaluation of
training programmes.

Outcomes of Learning
Can you think of
various kinds of
learning that has
happened to you
since you joined
XIM?

OPEN SYSTEM MODELS

INPUT

PROCESS

OUTPUT

Organizational
Needs

Analysis

Knowledge

Design

Skills

Budgets
Equipment

Development

Attitudes

Implementaion

Motivation

Staff

Evaluation

Job Performance

Employee Needs

EXTERNAL/INTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT

Mission Strategy
Resources Policies

Structure Finance and

nkage of TrainingORG
With Organisational
GOAL

IDENTITY TRAINING NEEDS

DECIDE TYPE OF TRAINING

ON THE JOB

FOLLOWUP

OFF-THE-JOB

DEVELOP TRAINING
OBJECTIVES

DESIGN TRAINING
CURRICULUM

TRAINING CYCLE
MEASURE IMPACT
OF TRAINING

CONDUCT
TRAINING

SELECT
TRAINING
METHODS

DESIGNING TRAINING FOR GLOBAL CORPORATE DIVERSITY

Define the learning needs

Explore the learning

options

Sequence the learning

Initiate pilot programmes

Go live

Now review and relaunch

DEFINING THE LEARNING NEEDS

Define
the
human
performance
requirements in terms of learning needs
Identify constraints, localisation issues
and budget limits
Validate any existing need analysis
Confirm
that
learning
solution
is
appropriate

EXPLORE LEARNING OPTIONS

Create an outline proposal highlighting

options and the preferred course of
action

SEQUENCE THE LEARNING

Design the overall flow of the training

Gain agreement of the sponsors to the

outline design

INITIATE PILOT PROGRAM

Turn the agreed design proposal into

learning products ready for testing in the
pilot / test phase

GO LIVE

To move the newly designed and tested

product into sustainable delivery

NOW REVIEW AND RELAUNCH

Review the continued relevance and

effectiveness of the learning /training
programs and modify as appropriate

ADDIE

ANALYSE
DESIGN
DEVELOP
IMPLEMENT
EVALUATE

ANALYZE
Needs
Analysis
Needs
Assessment
Performance
Analysis
Job analysis

EVALUATE
Evaluations Role
reactions/Learni
ng
Transfer of
Training
Business results.

RESULTS
Learning
Performanc
e
Financial
Strategic.

DESIGN
Objectives
Deliverables
Budget/Schedul
es
Blueprints/Proto
types.

IMPLEMENT

DEVELOP

Train the Trainer

Classroom Delivery
Non-classroom
Delivery.

Materials
Tests/Assessents

Results-based training design model

IN DESIGNING A TRAINING PROGRAM

A training program comprises of a series of linked events designed to
equip people with the range of competencies needed to do a whole job.
They may be exclusively on the job, exclusively off the job or a
mixture and may include a range of different methods.
Programs require management and regular review.
Most will be undertaken by more than one trainer,either
simultaneoulsy or over time.Individually tailored programs arising
from development centers are an exception to this.
Designing a program involves identifying relevant
competencies,clustering and sequencing them,defining specific
learning objectives,determining resources,choosing learning methods
and provide in deciding how to monitor and evaluate and setting up
an administrative system.

SOME CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGNING A PROGRAM

Identify needs /Expectations of Trainees.
Prioritise information into MUST know,SHOULD know&
COULD know.
Identify and use Building Blocks of information &
knowledge.
Follow the on-the-job sequence. Facilitate transfer of
learning to the workplace
Reinforce learning with practice
Ensure Principles of learning are applied
Ensure free interaction between
Trainer/Trainee/Environment/Program structure.
Build in flexibility into the program

FACTORS TO KEEP IN MIND

Phase the programme in accordance with the
learning process
Keep the `Resistance to Change syndrome in
mind
Relate programme to prevailing expectations
Build the training group
Maintain consistency in training
Keep in mind the principles of learning
Include activities
Remember the First-day syndrome
The Post-lunch session

Check List for Designing a

Training Programme

Who will be the Participants (Target Group) ?

What are the Objectives of the Programme ?
What would be the Contents/Coverage/Structure of the
Programme ?
What is the expected outcome of the Programme ?
Who will be the Faculty (Trainers) ?
What would be the Training Methods (Methodology) ?
What would be the mechanisms to monitor the application of
Training Inputs by the Participants ?
What would be the Venue, Date and Timings of the Programme?
What would be Programme Schedule ?
What would be the sequence of coverage, methodology of
Training, Time & Training Aids to be used (Lesson/Session Plan) ?

STEPS IN DESIGNING

A TRAINING PROGRAM

Training Processes Model

Needs Analysis Phase
Input

Process

Output

Design Phase
Input

Process

Output

Development Phase

Triggering
Event

Input

Process

Output

Implementation Phase
Input

Outcome
Evaluation
Data

Process

Output

Process
Evaluation
Data

Evaluation Phase
Input

Process

Output

1. Identify Training needs

Conduct Training Need
Analysis.
2. Break general training
objectives
into
Break
up objectives
intoconstituent
component of
parts.
Knowledge (acquiring it)
Understanding (of the knowledge)
Skill.
To facilitate , break into hierarchy :
Concluding Objectives
Enabling Objectives
Sessions Objectives.

Input

DESIGN
PHASE
Process

Output

Learning
Theory
Determine Factors
That Facilitate
Learning and Transfer
Training
Needs
Develop
Training
Objectiv
es

Input for
Reaction
Objectives

Select Method (s) of

Instruction
and identify
Design Strategy
Evaluation
Objectives

Organizatio
nal
Constraints

2 Identify
. different training
methods to
arrive at total
time and
facilities
required to meet
the objective.

3. Decide on kind of Training

Package
Various kinds of combinations can
be worked out taking into
consideration total time required
and various leaning principles.
The organisations can then decide
what kind of packages to use.
Company needs to know the cost
of each Program to decide which
program will bring greater benefit

DEVELOPMENT PHASE
INPUT

Determine
Determine
FactorsThat
That
Factors
Facilitate&&
Facilitate
Transfer
Transfer
Alternative
Alternative
Instructional
Instructional
Methods
Methods

OUTPUT

PROCESS

Instructional
Instructional
Strategy
Strategy

Program
Program
Development
Development
Plan
Plan
Instructional
Material
Instructional
Equipment
Trainee and
Trainer Manuals
Facilities
Trainer

4. Work out detailed syllabus.

Take into account:
All parts of program are accommodated and
tied together effectively.
Build in sufficient flexibility to allow for
normal variations between groups and
adjustments to unforeseen events.
Provide time and procedures for evaluating
and reviewing participants progress during the
program so that adjustments can be made.

5. Phase program according to learning

process

Program should be phased according to the learning process of:

Unfreezing

To stimulate involvement and desire to change

Eg: simulation,field training.

Moving

Explore new ideas,learning new concepts and

behaviour, trial and error.
Eg: academic inputs,cases,individual training.

Refreezing

End of program, fitting in new knowledge ,

understanding skill ,to set into organisational
life.
Eg: Cases, Role play,individual reflection.

6 Relate program
. to prevailing
expectation to
overcome
Resistance to
change
syndrome

7 Building a
. Training
Group.

8. Consistency in Training.
The process of training should be
consistent to:

The content.
All
arrangements
and logistics

PRESENTATION

Training Need Analysis

Training Objectives
Pre - During - Post Training Steps
Session Plans
Training Schedule
Training Methods
Training Aids
Room Layout

TRAINING
NEED
ANALYSIS

Training like all other

aspects of the organisation
is concerned with
performance - both of
individual employees job
performance and
organisations performance
as a whole.
..Training professionals ensure
that the right training is provided
to the right people at the right
time, by providing the right input

WHY TRAINING NEED ANALYSIS ?

Three questions that need to be answered are:
What do people need to learn in order
to perform?
What do people need to learn for the
organization to perform?
Where and how can learning support
performance?

ORMS OF TRAINING NEED ANALYSIS

Reactive/ Remedial
TNA
Proactive TNA
Preventive Approach
Developmental
Approach

A SYSTEM'S VIEW TO TNA

Spotting organisational problems

Tracing main causes and areas of problems

Recognising individuals & group related to

organizational problems

Job analysis
Comparison
Performance appraisal

Separating training from non-training

solutions
Determining Performance improvement
needs

Training needs
and solutions

Non-Training
Needs and
solutions

Information for development training and

Non-training objectives and
programmes

Performance
Standards

Training Needs

Training need is a condition where

there is a difference between
what is and what should be

Training Needs

Three reasons why people dont behave

as they are expected
They dont know how or when to perform
(Knowledge and Skills)
They arent motivated (Motivation)
They are prevented by the organisation or the
environment (Organisation and Environment)

Organizational Support
Gain trust of all stakeholders critical to
success of the process

Relationship with top management to

determine
Need for process
Expectations from process

Relationship with other organizational

members

Involve, advise, inform all key people

Needs Assessment
Analysis
Organisatio
n Analysis

Task
Analysis

Organisational
= Demands
Performan
ce gap

Person
Analysis

Employee Capability

Analysis Phase
Input

TRIGGER
Actual
Organizational
Performance

AOP < EOP

Expected
Organizational
Performance

Organizational
Analysis

Operational
Analysis
(EP)
Person
Analysis
(AP)

Process

Output

Training
Identify
Needs
Performanc
e
Discrepancy
PD = EP <
AP
And Causes Non
of PD
Trainin
g
Needs

SURVEILLANCE

INVESTIGATION
ORGANISATIONAL

ANALYSIS

OPERATIONAL
PERSON

ACTION
Fords needs analysis process model

ORGANISATIONAL ANALYSI
To ensure training is done
for the right topics, topics
that fit and foster the
organisations
various
agendas
Understanding
organisational culture
ensuring
that
key
stakeholders
provide
meaningful input

Organizational Analysis Involves

Specify goals
3 scenarios:
Clarity in goals and ways to achieve them e.g.
adopting new technology and training required
for it readily available
Clarity in goals but lack of ways to achieve e.g.
new technology adopted but no training
available
Goals are unclear or are changing, e.g. in case
of mergers or changing culture

Determine organizational training climate

Determine legal / environmental
constraints

DATA SOURCE FOR

ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS
Organizational Goals & Objectives
Resources
Internal Environment
Budget
Labor Inventory
Skills Inventory
Organizational Climate and Culture Indices
Other Organizational Indices
Changes in System or Subsystem

TASK ANALYSIS
Dissection of a task into knowledge, and
attitudes needed to accomplish it .
Job descriptions become very helpful in
identifying gaps in task skills and
learning needs.

Requirements Analysis
Examining the details that must be made
clear so that the TNA process can function
properly

Define the Target Job: which job(s) will

you analyze
Choose Methods for TNA: will depend on
the objectives of the TNA
Determine Participants in the TNA

You are setting up the PROTOCOL for the TNA

DATA SOURCE FOR OPERATIONAL/TASK

ANALYSIS

Job Description
Job Specification or Task Analysis
Performance Standards or
Benchmarks
Analysis of operating problems

PERSON ANALYSIS

Understanding
the
characteristics of
individuals within
the
target
training
population.

DATA SOURCE FOR PERSON

ANALYSIS
Performance data or appraisals
Observation work sampling
Interviews/ Questionnaires
Tests
Attitude surveys
Training progress charts
Diaries
Assessment centers
Coaching and Mentoring
Programmes

INPUTS FOR TNA

ORGANISATIONAL OPERATIONAL
ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS

Objectives
Resources
Internal
Environment

PERSON
ANALYSIS

Expected
Actual
Performance
Requirements. Performance
KSAs

IDENTIFYING DEPARTMENTAL NEEDS

Identify the strategy and
objectives
for
the
department
Identify the skills required
to
do
jobs
in
the
department.
Compare
the
required
skills to the current skill
levels.

Enter Potential Needs On Training

Records
List of the courses the
person has attended.
Training required by the
person.
Range of dates for when
the training is required.
Training request form
receipt or the receipt of

Model of Process When Performance Discrepancy Is

Identified (Part 1)

Performance Discrepancy?
YES

Is it worth fixing?
YES

Performance Discrepancy due to?

KSA
Deficiency
YES

Choose
Appropria
te

Reward/
Punishment
Incongruenc
YES
e
Modify
Systems

Inadequat Obstacles
e
in the
Feedback
system
YES

YES

Provide
Proper
Feedbac

Remove
Obstacle
s

NEED EVALUATION
Check that individuals have
not been previously trained
Check that training is the
appropriate solution
Check queries with managers
Find alternatives to training

Produce Training Requirement

Reports

Shows the training the individual has

completed and the training he needs to
do.
A computerized report gives
Y
Y
Y

all the people who have requested a particular

course
all the people who need a particular skill
the amount and type of training requested by
a particular part of the organization

Needs Identification Process

Has to balance

Corporate demands, policies and strategies

(umbrella under which the needs are
identified)
as well as Task & Individual requirements.

Problems in Training Need Analysis

REWARDS
TIME
SELLING TNA
CAUSE & EFFECT

In Summary Steps in identifying Training Needs

Assess your current situation
Envision your future
Gather information
Sort out your information
Share the results
Decide your next step
Without TNA , a cost benefit analysis of the training effort is very often
difficult to do.
Making TNA one of the most critical steps in any organisational training effort

By doing a TNA, we

Increase the chances that the time and

money spent on training is spent wisely
Determine the benchmark of evaluationof
training
Increase the motivation of participants
Align training activities with the strategic
plans of the organisation

LEARNING OUTCOMES
On the basis of TNA, you can decide the learning
outcomes from the progrmme
The major types of learning's are

AFFECTIVE learning involves formation of

ATTITUDE, feelings and preferences
BEHAVIOURAL learning Involves development
of competence in the actual performance of
procedures, operations and techniques. For
SKILL development
COGNITIVE learning Includes acquisition of
information and concepts related to course
content . For KNOWLEDGE development

TRAINING OBJECTIVES

TRAINING OBJECTIVES
A statement of the specific
outcome to be achieved by the
training stated from the point
of view of the learner .It is
defined
as
a
change
in
behaviour of the learner, which
includes his thinking, feeling
apart from observable actions.

Objectives are set so that :

Training has a clear focus
and purpose
It has measurable and
achievable outcomes.

WRITING TRAINING OBJECTIVES

After TNA , you set / arrive at the
Goal
End Result
Statement

OR
Terminal
Behaviour
Statement

Training Objectives have 4 components

A statement of Terminal
Behaviour
A statement of the
Content
A statement of the
Conditions
A statement of the
Standards.

To state Terminal Behaviour

Avoid abstract verb
Use well defined statements.
Use an action verb

To state Content Statement

Define the Behaviour Element
Define the Content Element

To state the Condition

Tell the trainee under what
conditions he is being evaluated.

To state Standard
Clearly define the standard of excellence
which is expected.
QUALITY
QUANTITY
TIME

CHECKLIST FOR WRITING TRAINING OBJECTIVES

i.

Do I have a clear idea of what the trainee must do at the

end of the session.

ii. Have I used an action verb to describe the behaviour .

iii. Have I included standards of satisfactory performance on
the job
iv. Have I provided the resources that the trainee must have to
satisfactorily perform the behaviour
v. Can I readily test the behaviour to specified standards
under specified conditions.
vi. Do objectives include behaviours or skills that are crucial to
adequate performances.