PSY 2012 General Psychology

Chapter 8: Thinking and Intelligence

Samuel R. Mathews, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
The Department of Psychology
The University of West Florida

Review from Memory

Working Memory functions to process
information for encoding into Long Term
Memory
Processes of rehearsal relate to how well
information can be retrieved from memory
Organization of information relates to how well
information can be retrieved and to what we
can do with that information

Thinking: How is it different from

remembering?
Thinking involves not only retrieving
information but also doing something with
it
Deciding something
Solving a problem
Judging something
Creating something
Finding something
Etc.,

Thinking: Whats involved?

Conceptsmental representations
Contents of Concepts:
Classes or categories (dogs, books, etc.,)
Attributes or characteristics (red, tall, painful)
Abstractions or non-tangible ideas (love, hate)
Procedures or processes (how to do ____)
Goals or intentions (future plans)

Thinking: Whats in our thoughts?

Types of Concepts
Natural:
Based on everyday experiences
Usually unanalyzed until we are asked to define
the natural concepts

Artificial:
Usually based on formal set of experiences
Based on rules for inclusion/exclusion
Usually formed by intentional efforts to learn

Thinking: Whats in our thoughts?

Concepts typically based on prototypes:
General representations (linguistic or visual)
that represent the object or class but may not
represent an individual member
The idea of bird may not be an individual but
some combination of attributes that allows us
to identify what is bird and not bird.

Organization of our thoughts:

Hierarchical:
From most inclusive and general to less
inclusive and more specific
MammalQuadrapedDogBeagle

Organization of our thoughts: Culture and

Individual Differences
Individuals own experience with levels of
a hierarchy will determine the unique
organization of the hierarchy.
Collective (cultural) experiences can lead
to broader agreement on definitions of
concepts.
Different definitions of concepts can lead
to very different outcomes in problem
solving, decision making, etc.

Thinking, Expectations, and Predictions

Organization of information in schemas
leads us to create expectations and
predictions with little information
The constructive nature of memory is
based on our making inferences based on
incomplete knowledge
Given competing interpretations, we tend
to adopt those that are in agreement with
our schema

Thinking, Expectations, and Predictions

Scripts
Schema for process or sequence of events;
Scripts are useful in routine sequences of
events (e.g. fast food restaurant; listening to a
lecture)
Scripts allow us to operate on automatic as
long as things are predictable.

Scripts, Schemas, and Conflict

Scripts or schemas based on narrow sets
of experiences can lead the individual to
judge others behavior from a biased
perspective
Individuals and cultures with conflicting
scripts or schemas frequently experience
challenges in communication

Thinking: Considered Reason or

Unconscious Process
Automatic:

Thinking that occurs as a matter of habit;

Thinking that typically requires little effort;
Thinking that is impacted by existing biases;
Frequently leads to less than optimal outcomes

Controlled:

Thinking that is goal directed

Thinking that requires intentional effort
Thinking based on analysis of existing biases
Frequently leads to more optimal outcomes (better
choices and decisions)

Functions of Thinking: Problem-Solving

Problem-Solving (Sternberg, 1985; 2004)
Recognizing there is a problem
Monitoring the situation to recognize some goal is
not being met

Consider multiple problem definitions by

analyzing context and identifying a goal
Representing or categorizing information
about the problem

Functions of Thinking: Problem-Solving

(Sternberg, 1985, 2004)
Constructing or identifying a strategy for solving
the problem (consider multiple strategies)
Identify and allocate resources needed to carry
out the solution strategy
Monitor progress of the solution strategy
Evaluate the solution strategy by obtaining
feedback

Thinking as Problem Solving

Selecting or developing a strategy
Algorithm:
Predefined set of procedures;
Given the procedures are carried out the outcome is
predictable
Works best for routine problems (figuring out how much
mileage your car gets per gallon)

Heuristic:

General rule that may work most of the time

Rules that typically apply to most problems
Working Backwardfrom the desired state to the problem
Analogiesfinding a similar situation
Problem decompositioncreating a set of smaller more
manageable problems

Thinking as Problem Solving

Problems with Problem Solving
Mental Set
Perceptual Setperceiving the problem from only
one perspective (radiation treatment problemin
class discussion)
Response Setaccessing only one solution
response (its the way weve always done it)

Thinking as Problem Solving

Problems with Problem Solving
Functional fixedness:
Focusing on one aspect of a potential solution
when another aspect might be more successful

Self-imposed limitations OR SelfHandicapping:

Creating limits to protect ones status or prevent
one from failing
May be unconscious to the individual (may be
based on perceived social statussex, race)

Thinking as Decision-Making
Decision-making implies selecting one course of
action over one or more others;
Decision-making frequently encountered as
deductive reasoningconstructing logical
conclusions based on information;
Decision-making ranges from low stakes
decisions (e.g. what shoes to wear; what to
watch on t.v.) to high stakes decisions (e.g. what
career to follow; whether to use illegal drugs or
not)

Thinking as Decision-Making: Biases and

Bad Decisions
Confirmation Biaswe tend to search for information
that is in agreement with our biases rather than seeking
to disconfirm or disprove our biases
Hindsight Biaswe tend to overestimate our ability to
have predicted events based on knowledge we had
beforehand; limits our ability to learn from our errors
because we convince ourselves that we knew it all the
time
Anchoring Biaswe tend to base estimates on an initial
experience; we anchor our judgments on an initial piece
of information rather than consider all information

Thinking as Decision-Making: Biases and

Bad Decisions
Representativeness Biaswe tend to judge
individual instances based on the degree to
which we view them as belonging to or to which
they represent a larger group.
Availability Biaswe tend to estimate the
likelihood or probability of something based on
whether relevant examples can be retrieved from
memory (e.g. pictures of the same street crime
seen repeatedly can lead to a conclusion that
crimes occur frequently)

Problem-Solving and Decision-Making

as Critical Thinking
Those who make good decisions and
solve problems with higher levels of
success share characteristics of critical
thinking
Thinking is goal directed
Thinking is based on logic and reliable
information
Ones own assumptions and biases are
questioned first
Others assumptions and assertions are
questioned

Problem-Solving and Decision-Making

as Critical Thinking
Critical thinking (contd)
Assertions are supported with valid and
reliable supporting data
Alternative and oppositional views are
considered fairly
Contradictory data or evidence are
considered and refuted fairly

Based on Halpern (1998, 2001)

Problem-Solving and Decision-Making

as Critical Thinking
Individuals who possess a disposition for
critical thinking
have the attributes of critical thinking as their
normal approach to solving problems and
making decisions;
typically make more adaptable decisions and
solve problems more successfully;
Modify their standpoints based on logic, data,
and reason rather than authority, belief, or
bias (e.g. availability, representativeness, etc.)

Thinking Creatively
Divergent rather than convergent thinking
(seeking multiple possibilities)
High levels of knowledge and interest in the
relevant domain
Sees problems as potentially complex
Typically restructures problems
Simultaneously seeks interactions with other
creative individuals and reflects independent
thinking
Intelligence and creativity relationship complex
and not direct