Lecture

Casting Processes
Ong Yung Chieh
Office: B006
Phone: 017-8565229
Email: ycong@unikl.edu.my
Manufacturing Processes 23103

June/2015

Casting involves:
Pouring molten metal into a mold
cavity.
Upon solidification, the metal takes
the shape of the cavity.
Casting first was used around 4000 B.C.
to make ornaments, arrowheads, and
various other objects.
** Materials with a high melting point, such as metal and glass, liquefied by heat.

Introduction

A wide variety of products can be cast,

and the process is capable of producing
intricate shapes in one piece,
including those with
internal cavities, such as engine
blocks.

Content

Introduction
Casting Terminology

Steps of Casting Processes

The Solidification Process

Cast Structure
Molten Metal Problems
Patterns

Types of Casting Processes

Advantages and Disadvantages of Casting

Summary
Video of Casting Processes

FIGURE II.3

Outline of metal-casting processes described in Part II.

Introduction

Products go through a series of processes before they are produced

Design

Material selection

Process selection

Manufacture

Inspection and evaluation

Feedback
Materials processing is the science and technology that converts a
material into a product of a desired shape in the desired quantity.

Four basic categories

Casting processes

Material removal processes

Deformation processes

Consolidation processes
Decisions should be made after all alternatives and limitations are investigated

The four materials processing families,

with subgroups and typical processes.

Casting is the process that produces objects by

filling a mold cavity by gravity or pressure with
liquid metal and allowing it to cool and solidify.

Casting process

Material is melted
Heated to proper temperature
Treated to modify its chemical makeup
Molten material is poured into a mold
Solidifies

Casting can produce a large variety of parts

Big parts:
Engine blocks and cylinder heads
for automotive vehicles
Wood burning stoves
Machine frames

Small parts:
Dental crowns
Jewelry
Small statues
Frying pans

Content

Introduction
Casting Terminology

Steps of Casting Processes

The Solidification Process

Cast Structure
Molten Metal Problems
Patterns

Types of Casting Processes

Advantages and Disadvantages of Casting
Summary

Casting Terminology
Pattern- approximate duplicate of the part to be cast
molding material- material that is packed around the pattern to provide
the mold cavity
Flask- rigid frame that holds the molding aggregate
Cope- top half of the Flask
Drag- bottom half of the Flask
Core- sand or metal shape that is inserted into the mold to create internal
features

Cross section of a typical two-part sand mold, indicating various mold

components and
terminology.

Casting Terminology
mold cavity- combination of the mold
material and cores
Riser-additional void in the mold that
provides additional metal to compensate
for shrinkage
Gating system- network of channels that
delivers the molten metal to the mold
Pouring cup- portion of the gating system
that controls the delivery of the metal
Sprue- vertical portion of the gating system

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Runners- horizontal channels

Gates- controlled entrances
Parting line- separates the cope
and drag

Draft- angle or taper on a pattern

that allows for easy removal of the
casting from the mold

Casting- describes both the

process and the product when
molten metal
is poured and solidified

Cross section of a typical two-part sand

mold,
indicating various mold
components and terminology.

11

Content

Introduction
Casting Terminology

Steps of Casting Processes

The Solidification Process

Cast Structure
Molten Metal Problems
Patterns

Types of Casting Processes

Advantages and Disadvantages of Casting
Summary

Steps of Casting Processes

1. Mold cavity is produced having the desired shape and size of the part

Takes shrinkage into account

Single-use or permanent mold

2. Melting process

Provides molten material at the proper temperature

3. Pouring technique
Molten metal is poured into the mold at a proper rate to ensure that
erosion and or defects are minimized
4. Solidification process

Controlled solidification allows the product to have desired properties

Mold should be designed so that shrinkage is controlled

5. Mold removal

The casting is removed from the mold

Single-use molds are broken away from the casting
Permanent molds must be designed so that removal does not
damage the part
6. Cleaning, finishing, and inspection operations

Excess material along parting lines may have to be machined

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Content

Introduction
Casting Terminology

Steps of Casting Processes

The Solidification Process

Cast Structure
Molten Metal Problems
Patterns

Types of Casting Processes

Advantages and Disadvantages of Casting
Summary

The Solidification Process

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Molten material is allowed to solidify into the final shape. Gas porosity and
Shrinkage occur during solidification. Two stages of solidification
Nucleation
Stable particles form from the liquid metal
Occurs when there is a net release of energy from the liquid
Undercooling is the difference between the melting point and the temperature
at which nucleation occurs
Each nucleation event produces a grain
Nucleation is promoted (more grains) for enhanced material properties
Inoculation or grain refinement is the process of introducing solid particles
to promote nucleation
Grain Growth
Occurs as the heat of fusion is extracted from the liquid
Direction, rate, and type of growth can be controlled
Controlled by the way in which heat is removed
Rates of nucleation and growth control the size and shape of the
crystals
Faster cooling rates generally produce finer grain sizes

These events greatly influence the

size
shape
uniformity, and
chemical composition of the grains
formed throughout the casting, which in turn
influence the
overall properties of the metal.

The significant factors affecting these events

are
the type of metal,
the thermal properties
of both the metal and the mold,
the geometric relationship between
volume and
surface area of the casting, and
the shape of the mold.

The Solidification Process

Cooling Curves
Useful for studying the solidification process
Cooling rate is the slop of the cooling curve
Solidification can occur over a range of temperatures in
alloys
Beginning and end of solidification are indicated by changes in slope

Cooling curve for a pure metal or eutectic-composition alloy (metals with

a distinct
freezing point), indicating major features related to solidification.

15

FIGURE 10.1 (a) Temperature as a function of time for the solidification of pure metals; note that freezing
takes place at a constant temperature. (b) Density as a function of time.

The Solidification Process

Prediction of Solidification Time: Chvorinovs Rule
Ability to remove heat from a casting is related to the surface area
through which the heat is removed and the environment that it is rejecting
heat to.
Chvorinovs Rule: ts=B(V/A)n where n=1.5 to 2.0

ts is the time from pouring to solidification

B is the mold constant
V is the volume of the casting
A is the surface area through which heat is rejected

Fluidity and Pouring Temperature

Metal should flow into all regions of the mold cavity and then solidify
Fluidity is the ability of a metal to flow and fill a mold
Affects the minimum section thickness, maximum length of a thin section,
fineness of detail, ability to fill mold extremities
Dependent on the composition, freezing temperature, freezing range,
and surface tension
Most important controlling factor is pouring temperature

16

17

Content

Introduction
Casting Terminology

Steps of Casting Processes

The Solidification Process

Cast Structure
Molten Metal Problems
Patterns

Types of Casting Processes

Advantages and Disadvantages of Casting
Summary

Cast Structure

18

Three distinct regions or zones

Chill zone
Rapid nucleation that occurs when the molten
metal comes into contact with the cold walls of
the mold
Forms a narrow band of randomly oriented
crystals on the surface of a casting

Columnar zone
Rapid growth perpendicular to the casting
surface
Long and thin
Highly directional

Equiaxed zone
Crystals in the interior of the casting
al, randomly oriented crystals
Spheric

Internal structure of a cast metal bar showing the chill zone at the periphery, columnar grains
growing toward the center, and a central shrinkage cavity.

19

Content

Introduction
Casting Terminology

Steps of Casting Processes

The Solidification Process

Cast Structure
Molten Metal Problems
Patterns

Types of Casting Processes

Advantages and Disadvantages of Casting
Summary

Molten Metal Problems

20

Chemical reactions can occur between molten metal and its surroundings. This
can lead to defects in the final castings
Metal oxides may form when molten metal reacts with oxygen
Dross or slag is the material that can be carried with the molten metal during
pouring and filling of the mold. This Affects the surface finish, machinability,
and mechanical properties
Gas porosity
Gas that is not rejected from the liquid metal may be trapped upon solidification
Several techniques to prevent gas porosity
Prevent the gas from initially dissolving in the liquid

Vacuum degassing removes the gas from the liquid before it is poured into
the castings
Gas flushing- passing inert gases or reactive gases through the liquid metal

Melting can be done in a vacuum

Melting can be done in environments with low-solubility gases
Minimize turbulence

Molten Metal Problems

Solidification Shrinkage
Most metals undergo noticeable volumetric contraction when cooled
Three principle stages of shrinkage:
Shrinkage of liquid as it cools from the solidification temperature
Solidification shrinkage as the liquid turns into solid
Solid metal contraction as the solidified metal cools to room
temperature

Dimensional changes experienced by a metal column as the material cools from a

superheated liquid to a room-temperature solid. Note the significant shrinkage that
occurs upon solidification.

21

Molten Metal Problems

Solidification Shrinkage
Amount of liquid metal contraction depends on the coefficient of thermal
contraction and the amount of superheat
As the liquid metal solidifies significant amounts of shrinkage can occur
Cavities and voids can be prevented by designing the casting to have
directional solidification
Hot tears can occur when there is significant tensile stress on the
surface of the casting material

22

23

Content

Introduction
Casting Terminology

Steps of Casting Processes

The Solidification Process

Cast Structure
Molten Metal Problems
Patterns

Types of Casting Processes

Advantages and Disadvantages of Casting
Summary

Patterns

Patterns are made from wood, metal, foam, or plastic

Dimensional modification are incorporated into the design (allowances)
Shrinkage allowance is the most important
Pattern must be slightly larger than the desired part
Typical allowances

Cast iron

Steel

Aluminum

Magnesium

Brass

0.8-1.0%
1.5-2.0%
1.0-1.3%
1.0-1.3%
1.5%

Shrinkage allowances are incorporated into the pattern using shrink rules
Thermal contraction might not be the only factor for determining pattern
size
Surface finishing operations (machining, etc.) should be taken into
consideration

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25

Content

Introduction
Casting Terminology

Steps of Casting Processes

The Solidification Process

Cast Structure
Molten Metal Problems
Patterns

Types of Casting Processes

Advantages and Disadvantages of Casting
Summary

Types of Casting Processes

Nonpermanent mold casting (expendable mold casting)
Sand Casting
Plaster and Ceramic mold casting (DVD)
Investment Casting (lost wax)
Lost Foam casting (DVD)
Permanent mold casting
Die Casting
Permanent mold casting (DVD)
Centrifugal Casting

26

Types of Casting Processes

27

Sand Casting

most widely used casting

all materials
steel, nickel, and titanium (high Tm)
sizes from small to very large
production quantities from one to millions

A large sand casting weighing

Sand
over 680
Properties sand porosity enables the gases and
Permeability:
escape frame
from [3]
mold
kg steam
for an airto
compressor
Strength: resists breaking, allows easy removal of the casting
Refractoriness: resists high temperatures without fusing
Grain Size and Shape: grain size affects surface finish and angularity provides
bonding strength
Types of Sand Mold
Green-sand mold: mixture of sand, clay, and water (Green)
Skin-dried mold: green-sand mold cavity dried to a depth of 10 to 25 mm
Dry-sand mold: organic binders rather than clay and baked to improve
strength (shell mold, DVD)

Types of Casting Processes

28

Step in San Castin

s
d
g

Steps in the production

in sand casting includes
sequence
pattern-making
casting
and moldmaking [3]

operatio
n,

Types of Casting Processes

Steps
in

San Castin [2]

d
g

pattern
drag
cope

drag

29

Types of Casting Processes

Step in San Castin [2]
s
d
g

cope
drag

Riser pin
Sprue pin

30

Types of Casting Processes

Step in San Castin [2]
s
d
g

gate
runner

drag

cope

31

Types of Casting Processes

Steps in Sand Casting [2]
riser

sprue

32

Typical Gating System

Diagram from Ref 2

Slow fill misruns and cold shuts

Fast fill mold erosion, turbulent flow

33

Types of Casting Processes

Sand Casting
Capabilities and Advantages

Applicable to most metals

Least expensive

No size or shape limitation (apart from thin walls)

Production cost is generally the lowest

Limitations and Disadvantages

Not very precise

Surface finish and dimensional accuracy decrease

with casting weight

mold erosion common

Slow production rate

Labor cost

34

Types of Casting Processes

Investment Casting

Developed by Egyptians ~3,500 years ago

Wax pattern (lost wax casting)

Pattern coated with a refractory material and then melted away prior to
pouring the molten metal
Castings of high accuracy and intricate details

Applications: rocket components and jet engine turbine blades, jewelry, and
dental fixtures
11-14th century

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost-wax_casting

www.tradekorea.com

35

Types of Casting Processes

Step in Investmen Castin
s
t
g

http://www.pccsmp
.com/InvestmentCasting.htm

36

Types of Casting Processes

Step in Investmen Castin
s
t
g

http://www.protocastjlc.com
/page
s/lostwaxinvestmentcasting.html

37

Types of Casting Processes

Step in Investmen Castin
s
t
g

Autoclav
e

http://www.protocastjlc.com/pages/lostwaxi
nves
tmentcasting.html

38

Types of Casting Processes

Step in Investmen Castin
s
t
g

http://www.protocastjlc.com
/page
s/lostwaxinvestmentcasting.html

http://www.pccsmp
.com/Inves
tmentCasting.htm

39

Types of Casting Processes

Investment Casting
Capabilities and Advantages
All types of metals (steels, Al, Cu and Ni alloys)
Complex and intricate shapes
Dimensional control
Tolerances 0.075 mm possible
Excellent surface finish
3.2 mm readily obtainable
Additional machining is not normally required
Wax recycling
Limitations and Disadvantages
Relatively expensive
Low volume, slow
Casting weight mostly <4.5 kg

40

Types of Casting Processes

Die
Casting
Developed in mid 1800s
molds are tool steel dies
Molten metal is forced into dies under high
pressure
Solidification under pressure
Die blocks open, casting ejected by pins
Mostly non-ferrous alloys (low to medium T m)
Two types:

Hot-chamber die casting

Cold-chamber die casting

41

Types of Casting Processes

HotChamber

Di Castin (Mainly for low melting point

e g
metals)

Cycle (1): with die closed and plunger withdrawn,

molten
metal flows into the chamber [3]

42

Types of Casting Processes

HotChamber

Di Castin
e g

735

43

MP
a

Cycl (2): plunger

metal in chamber to
emaintaining
forces
pressure flow
during cooling and
solidification [3]

High production
rates
Zn, Mg, Sn, Pb
(low Tm)

into
die,

Types of Casting Processes

ColdChamber

44

Di Castin (Mainly for medium melting point

metals)
e g

Cycle (1): with die closed and ram withdrawn,

molten metal
poured into the chamber from ladle [3]

is

Types of Casting Processes

ColdChamber

45

Di Castin
e g

14-140
MPa

Lower rates than

hot-chamber
Al, Cu, Mg alloys
(medium Tm)
Cycle
ra forces
cooling
and
(2):duringm
metal
solidification

to
flow

into die, maintaining

pressure

[3]

Types of Casting Processes

Die Casting
Capabilities and Advantages

Good dimensional control

Good surface finish

Thin walls possible

Highest production rate of all casting

Many thousand castings per die

Low labor cost

Al allo
y

Limitations and Disadvantages

Expensive (die material and die making)

Mainly casting non ferrous metals

Shapes limited by need to open die
Economic for large quantities

http://incastinc.com/ductile_iron_casting

46

Types of Casting Processes

Centrifugal Casting
Mold (steel, iron) is rotated at high speed
Usually before pouring metal
Centrifugal force distributes molten metal to mold cavity
Methods:
True centrifugal casting (pipes, tubes, bushings, rings)
Semi centrifugal casting (solid castings e.g. wheels and
pulleys)
Centrifuge casting (radial symmetry not required)

http://www.mechanicalengineeringblog.com/wpcontent/uploads/2012/02/01-centrifugal-casting-centrifugingprocess-centrifugal-casting-techniques.jpg

http://www.themetalcasting.com/semi-centrifugalcasting.html

47

Types of Casting Processes

Tru Centrifug Castin
e
al
g

Tubular shapes (inside shape round, often requires machining)

Outside shape can be round, hexagonal, etc
Outer diameter fine-grained

48

Types of Casting Processes

Semi centrifugal Casting [5]

Expendable sand mold a whee

for
l
manufacture

be
Central axis
machined
must
Lower rpm than in true
centrifugal

Pouring
of

wheel

away
(impurities,

porosity
)

49

Types of Casting Processes

Centrifug Castin [5]
e
g

Set
up

Pourin
g

50

51

Content

Introduction
Casting Terminology

Steps of Casting Processes

The Solidification Process

Cast Structure
Molten Metal Problems
Patterns

Types of Casting Processes

Advantages and Disadvantages of Casting
Summary

Advantages and disadvantage of Casting

Advantages

Complex shapes--External and internal shapes

Parts can have hollow sections or cavities

Very large or small parts with Net shape or near net shape

Intricate shaping of metals that are difficult to machine

Mass production possible

Different mold materials can be used

Sand, metal, or ceramics

Different pouring methods

Ferrous and non-ferrous metals

Disadvantage

Limitations on mechanical properties

Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Solidification defects
Safety hazards to workers
Environmental problems

52

53

Content

Introduction
Casting Terminology

Steps of Casting Processes

The Solidification Process

Cast Structure
Molten Metal Problems
Patterns

Types of Casting Processes

Advantages and Disadvantages of Casting
Summary

Summary
A successful casting requires that every aspect of the
process be examined
Every aspect from the desired grain structure to the
desired finish of the product should be considered during
design stages

Efforts should be made to minimize cracking and defects

There are a variety of processes to improve castings

they
and
should all be considered during the design phase

Video of Casting
Processes

54

References
1.

2.
3.

4.
5.

Worksafe, Department of Consumer and Employment Protection,

Government of Western Australia,
http//www.worksafe.wa.gov.au/newsite/worksafe/default.html
(27/07/06)
De Garmo, E.P.,10
Black, J.T. & Kosher, R.A., Materials & Processes in
Manufacturing, th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2008.
Groover, M.P., Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials,
Processes, and Systems, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2007.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3qKGx_AxHp0 (25/7/2011)
http://thelibraryofmanufacturing.com (9/08/2012)

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