Optimization Techniques

Dr. Muhammad Naeem

Dr. Ashfaq Ahmed

Course
Outline
Review of Math
Basics of Optimization
Review of Matlab
Examples of Optimization in Computer, Telecom and Power applications
Graphical Optimization
Optimization Types Constraint and Unconstraint
Optimization Problem Types Linear NonLinear etc
Linear Optimization
Non Linear Optimization
Integer and Mixed integer programming
Complexity Analysis
2

Set Theory
Sets

A well-defined collection of objects

Subset
A={1,3,5,7,9},

B={x|x is odd}, C={1,3,5,7,9,...}

Cardinality of A=5 (|A|=5)

A B

A is a proper subset of B, If A is a subset of B, but A is not

equal to B, i.e., there exists at least one element of B which is not an
element of A

A B x[ x A x B ]

CB

C is a subset of B.

A B x[ x A x B ]
x[ x A x B]

The power set is the set of all subsets of a given set.

For the set S = {1,2,3} this means:
P(S) = {0, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3} }
|S|=n then |P(S)| = 2n
3

Set Theory
Conceptually, sets may be infinite (i.e., not finite, without end).
Symbols for some special infinite sets:
N = {0, 1, 2, }

The natural numbers.

Z = {, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, } The integers.

R = The real numbers, such as 374.1828
For real numbers a,b with a<b

[ a, b] {x R | a x b} closed interval
( a, b) {x R | a x b} open interval
[ a, b) {x R | a x b} half-open interval
( a, b] {x R | a x b} half-open interval
4

Set Theory
For real numbers a,b with a<b

[ a, b] {x R | a x b} closed interval
( a, b) {x R | a x b} open interval
[ a, b) {x R | a x b} half-open interval
( a, b] {x R | a x b} half-open interval
xS (x is in S) is the proposition that object x is an element or member

of set S.
e.g. 3N, a{x | x is a letter of the alphabet}
Can define set equality in terms of relation:
S,T: S=T (x: xS xT)
Two sets are equal iff they have all the same members.
xS : (xS)
x is not in S
5

Function

Let X and Y be two nonempty sets.

A function from X into Y is a relation that associates with each element of
X exactly one element of Y.
Domain: In a set of ordered pairs, (x, y), the domain is the set of all xcoordinates.
Range: In a set of ordered pairs, (x, y), the range is the set of all ycoordinates.
Example:

f (x)

x5

Domain: {x: x5}

Range: {y: y0}
Example:

f ( x) x 2 5

Function

Let X and Y be two nonempty sets.

A function from X into Y is a relation that associates with each element of
X exactly one element of Y.
Domain: In a set of ordered pairs, (x, y), the domain is the set of all xcoordinates.
Range: In a set of ordered pairs, (x, y), the range is the set of all ycoordinates.
Example:

f (x)

x5

Domain: {x: x5}

Range: {y: y0}

f ( x) x 2 5

Example:
Domain: All Real
Range: {y: y-5}

Factorial, Permutation and Combination

For n a natural number,
n! = n(n - 1)(n - 2)...321
0! = 1
n! = n(n - 1)!
1! = 1
2! = 2
3! = 6
4!= 3!*4 = 24
What about 10! =

There are 8 choices for the first position,

leaving 7 choices for the second slot, 6
choices for the third slot and so on.
The number of different orderings is
8(7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)=8! =40,320

Permutations are arrangements.

In a permutation, the order of the books is important.
Each different permutation is a different arrangement.
The arrangement ABC is different from the arrangement CBA, even
though they are the same 3 books.
The number of r-permutations of a set S with n=|S| elements is
P(n,r) = n(n1)(nr+1) = n!/(nr)
8

Factorial, Permutation and Combination

Combinations are selections.

There are some problems where the order of the items is NOT
important. These are called combinations.
You are just making selections, not making different arrangements.
Example: A committee of 3 students must be selected from a group of 5
people. How many possible different committees could be formed?
Lets call the 5 people A,B,C,D,and E.
Suppose the selected committee consists of students E, C, and A. If
you re-arrange the names to C, A, and E, its still the same group of
people. This is why the order is not important.
Because were not going to use all the possible combinations of ECA, like EAC,
CAE, CEA, ACE, and AEC, there will be a lot fewer committees. Therefore instead of
using only 5x4x3, to get the fewer committees, we must divide

5x4x3
3x2x1

Answer:
10 committees

(Always divide by the

factorial of the number of
digits on top of the fraction.)
9

Factorial, Permutation and Combination

The number of r-combinations C(n,r) of a set with
n=|S| elements is

n
n!
C ( n, r )
r !(n r )!
r
Essentially unordered permutations

P ( n, r ) C ( n , r ) P ( r , r )
Note that C(n,r) = C(n, nr)

n
P (n, r ) n! /( n r )!
n!
C (n, r )

P(r , r )
r!
r!(n r )!
r
10

Linear Algebra
Algebra means, roughly, relationships.
Linear Algebra means, roughly, line-like relationships.
If 3 feet forward has a 1-foot rise, then going 10x as far should give a 10x
rise (30 feet forward is a 10-foot rise)
Think of a vector as a directed line segment y

in N-dimensions! (has length and

direction)
Basic idea: convert geometry in higher
dimensions into algebra!
Once you define a nice basis along
each dimension: x-, y-, z-axis
Vector becomes a 1 x N matrix!
v = [a b c]T

v
x

a

v b
c

11

Linear Algebra
Vector in Rn is an ordered

1

6
3

4

set of n real numbers.

e.g. v = (1,6,3,4) is in R4
(1,6,3,4) is a column

vector:
as opposed to a row vector:

m-by-n matrix is an object

with m rows and n columns,

each entry fill with a real
number:

6 3 4

1 2 8

4 78 6
9 3 2

12

Linear Algebra
use the head-to-tail method
to combine vectors

Line equation: y = mx + c
Matrix equation: y = Mx + c

A
B

C
B
A

Vector Addition: A+B

A B ( x1 , x2 ) ( y1 , y2 ) ( x1 y1 , x2 y2 )
Scalar Product: A+B

av a( x1 , x2 ) (ax1 , ax2 )

av
v

Change only the length (scaling), but keep direction fixed.

Matrix operation (Av) can change length, direction and also dimensionality!

13

Linear Algebra
Vectors: Magnitude (Length) and Phase (direction)
v ( x , x , , x )T
1 2
n
n
v x2
i
i 1
If v 1, v is a unit vector

Alternate representations:
Polar coords: (||v||, )
Complex numbers: ||v||ej

(unit vector => pure direction)

y
||v||

phase
14

Linear Algebra
Vector norm: afunction that assigns a strictly positive length
orsizeto each vectorin avector space [wikipedia]

Forann-dimensionalvector x [ x1

thevectornorm: x p x

x2 ... xn ]

p
@ xi
i

1/ p

; p 1, 2,...

Specialcase : x @max xi
i

Mostcommonlyused L2 norm : x 2 x x12 x2 2 ...xn 2

Example: v = (1, 2,
Name
Symbol value
3)
L1 norm

|v|1

L2 norm

|v|2

14 3.74

L3 norm

|v|3

361/33.3

L norm

|v|

1/2

Properties:
1. x 0whenx 0; x 0iff x 0
2. kx k x scalark
3. x y x y

15

Linear Algebra
5 0 1
5

0 5 1
5
0 1 1
1

1 0 1
1

0 1 1
0

1 0 0
1
1 0 1
1

0 0 1
0
1 c x
x cy

y
0 1 y

(stretching)

(rotation)

(reflection)

(projection)

(shearing)
16

Linear Algebra
Matrices as sets of constraints

x y z 1

Special matrices

2x y z 2

a 0 0

0
b
0

0 0 c

diagonal

a b

0 d
0 0

e
f

upper-triangular

a 0

b c
d e

0
f

lower-triangular

0
0

x
1 1 1
1
y
2 1 1
2
z

1 0 0

0
1
0

0 0 1

tri-diagonal I (identity matrix)

Transpose of A: Matrix obtained by interchanging rows and columns of A.

Denoted by A or AT. AT = [aji]
AT =

1
2

5
6

Symmetric Matrix: AT = A
Identity Matrix: A square matrix whose diagonal elements are all 1 and off-

diagonal elements are all zero. Denoted by I.

Null Matrix: A matrix whose all elements are zero.
17

Linear Algebra
Determinants
Example

Evaluate the determinant

of

3 5
A

1
2

3 5
det A
(3)(2) (5)(1) 6 5 1
1 2

Def: Minors
Let A =[aij] be an nxn matrix . The ijth minor of A ( or the minor of
aij) is the determinant Mij of the (n-1)x(n-1) submatrix after you
delete the ith row and the jth column of A.

Example

Find

M 23 , M 32 , M 33 ,

1 0 2
A 4 3 1
3 5 1

18

Linear Algebra
Def: Cofactors
Let A =[aij] be an nxn matrix . The ijth cofactor of A ( or the
cofactor of aij) is defined to be Aij ( 1) i j M ij

Example

Find A23 , A32 , A33 ,

1 0 2
A 4 3 1
3 5 1

signs

19

Linear Algebra
0 2 1
A 3 1 2
4 0 1
Find all the minors and cofactors of A, and then
find the determinant of A.
Sol:
1 2
3 2
3 1
M 11

1, M 12

4
4 1
4 0
C13 4
C11 1
C12 5
M 21 2, M 22 4, M 23 8, C21 2, C22 4, C23 8,
M 31 5, M 32 3, M 33 6. C31 5, C32 3, C33 6.
0

5,

M 13

A a11C11 a12C12 a13C13 0(1) 2(5) 1(4) 14

a21C21 a22C22 a23C23 3(2) (1)(4) 2(8) 14
a11C11 a21C21 a31C31 0(1) 3(2) 4(5) 14
20

Linear Algebra
Principal Minor
Principal minor of order k: A sub-matrix obtained by deleting any n-k
rows and their corresponding columns from an n x n matrix Q.
Consider

1 2 3
Q 4 5 6
7 8 9

Principal minors of order 1 are diagonal elements 1, 5, and 9.

Principal minors of order 2 are

1 2 1 3
5 6
4 5 , 7 9 and 8 9

Determinant of a principal minor is called principal determinant.

21

Linear Algebra
Leading Principal Minor
The leading principal minor of order k of an n x n matrix is obtained
by deleting the last n-k rows and their corresponding columns.

1 2 3
Q 4 5 6
7 8 9

Leading principal minor of order 1 is 1.

Leading principal minor of order 2 is

1 2
4 5

No. of leading principal determinants of an n x n matrix is n.

22

Linear Algebra
An nxn matrix M is said to be positive definite if zTMz is positive for all
non-zero column vectors z. Matrix M is symmetric.
Tests for positive definite matrices
All diagonal elements must be positive.
All the leading principal determinants must be positive (z>0).

Tests for positive semi-definite matrices

All diagonal elements are non-negative (z>=0).
All the principal determinants are non-negative.

Tests for negative definite and negative semi-definite matrices

Test the negative of the matrix for positive definiteness or positive

semi-definiteness.

23

Linear Algebra

24

Linear Algebra

25

Linear Algebra
Eigenvalues
If the action of a matrix on a (nonzero) vector changes its magnitude but
not its direction, then the vector is called an eigenvector of that matrix.
Each eigenvector is, in effect, multiplied by a scalar, called the eigenvalue
corresponding to that eigenvector. The eigenspace corresponding to one
eigenvalue of a given matrix is the set of all eigenvectors of the matrix with
that eigenvalue
Given a linear transformation A, a non-zero vector x is defined to be an
eigenvector of the transformation if it satisfies the eigenvalue equation

AX X
for some scalar . In this situation, the scalar is called an eigenvalue of
A corresponding to the eigenvector x.

26

Linear Algebra
Computation of eigenvalues, and the characteristic equation
When a transformation is represented by a square matrix A, the
eigenvalue equation can be expressed as

AX IX 0
Solve

det(A I) = 0.

27

Linear Algebra

28

Linear Algebra

29

Linear Algebra

30

Linear Algebra

31

Differential Calculus
The derivative, or derived function of f(x) denoted f`(x)
is defined as
f ( x h) f ( x)
f `( x) lim

h 0
h

y
Q
f ( x h) f ( x )
P

h
x

mPQ
x+h

f ( x h) f ( x )
h

dy
y
Leibniz Notation: f `( x) lim

ho x
dx

32

Calculus
The Product Rule
If k ( x) f ( x).g ( x) , then:

k `( x) f `( x) g ( x) g `( x) f ( x)

If y f ( x).g ( x), then:

dy df
dg
.g ( x ) . f ( x )
dx dx
dx

OR

dy
f `g g ` f
dx

1. Differentiate y x 2 sin x
f ( x) x 2

g ( x) sin x

f `( x) 2 x

g `( x) cos x

dy
f `g g ` f
dx

2 x sin x x 2 cos x

33

Calculus
The Quotient Rule
dy f `g g ` f

dx
g2
d x3
1. Find

dx sin x
f ( x) x3

g ( x) sin x

f `( x) 3 x 2 g `( x) cos x
dy f `g g ` f
3x 2 sin x x3 cos x

2
dx
g
sin 2 x
34

Calculus
A secant line is a straight line joining two points on a function

A tangent line is a straight line that touches a function at only one point.
The tangent line represents the instantaneous rate of change of the
function at that one point. The slope of the tangent line at a point on the
function is equal to the derivative of the function at the same point.

35

35

Calculus
A stationary point is an input to a
function where the derivative is zero
Stationary points (red circles) and
inflection points (blue squares).
The stationary points in this graph
are all relative maxima or relative
minima.

An inflection point or Saddle point , is

a point on a curve at which the curvature
or concavity changes sign from plus to
minus or from minus to plus.
A critical point of a function is
any point (a, f(a)) where f `(a) =
0 or where f `(a) does not exist.
f(x) = x2 + 2x + 3 is differentiable everywhere
f(x) = x2/3 is defined for all x and differentiable
for x 0, with the derivative f(x) = 2x1/3/3.
36

Calculus
Consider the
function:

x2 2 x 1

f ( x) x
1 x 2
1
x 1 2 x 4
2

y
5

Domain [ 2, 4)

2x

f `( x) 1
1

2 x 1
1 x 2
2 x 4
37

Calculus

Local extrema

43215 21
321 321

Local extreme values occur either at the end points of the function, turning
points or critical points within the interval of the domain.
y

Consider the function,

x2 2x

3 x 1

f ( x) x3
1 x 1
2 x 2 8 x 5 1 x 3

Domain [ 3,3)

3 is the local maximum value

-1 is the local minimum value

If extrema occurs at end points then they are end point maximums or end
point minimums.
(i) Local maximum / minimum turning points
(ii) End point values
(iii) Critical points
39

Calculus
The Nature of Stationary Points.
If f `(a) = 0 then a table of values over a suitable interval centred at a
provides evidence of the nature of the stationary point that must exist at a.
A simpler test does exist.
It is the second derivative test.

f `( x ) 0 and f ``( x ) 0 then minimum turning point.

f `( x ) 0 and f ``( x ) 0 then maximum turning point.
f `( x ) 0 and f ``( x ) 0 then draw a table of signs.
If the second derivative test is easier to determine than making a table of
signs then this provides an efficient technique to finding the nature of
stationary points.

40

Calculus
100

Orig
1st Derv.
2nd Derv.

80
60

y = x 4-4x 3+5

40

dy = 4 x. 3 - 12*x 2

d2y = 12 x 2 - 24 x

20
0
-20
-40
-60

x = -2:0.001:4;
y = x.^4 - 4*x.^3 + 5;
dy = 4 * x.^3 - 12*x.^2;
d2y = 12 * x.^2 - 24*x;

-80
-2

plot(x,y,'r','LineWidth',2); hold on;

plot(x,dy,'b','LineWidth',2); hold on;
plot(x,d2y,'k','LineWidth',2); hold on;
legend('Orig','1st Derv.','2nd Derv.')

-1

1
x

41

Graph Theory

Network = graph
Informally a graph is a set of nodes joined
by a set of lines or arrows.
Nodes and edges
G(V, E)
Undirected graph
Directed graph

V:={1,2,3,4,5,6}
E:={{1,2},{1,5},{2,3},{2,5},{3,4},{4,5},{4,6}}
Many problems can be stated in terms of a graph
The properties of graphs are well-studied
Many algorithms exists to solve graph problems
Many problems are already known to be intractable

By reducing an instance of a problem to a standard graph problem, we may be

able to use well-known graph algorithms to provide an optimal solution

Graphs are excellent structures for storing, searching, and retrieving large
amounts of data
Graph theoretic techniques play an important role in increasing the
storage/search efficiency of computational techniques.

42

Graph Theory
Undirected graph
loop

Directed graph
loop

G=(V,E)
isolated vertex
multiple
edges

adjacent

incidence: an edge (directed or undirected) is incident to a vertex that is

one of its end points.

degree of a vertex: number of edges incident to it
Nodes of a digraph can also be said to have an indegree and an
outdegree
adjacency: two vertices connected by an edge are adjacent

43

Graph Theory
x

path: no vertex can be repeated

example path: a-b-c-d-e
trail: no edge can be repeated
example trail: a-b-c-d-e-b-d
walk: no restriction
example walk: a-b-d-a-b-c
closed: if starting vertex is also ending
vertex
length: number of edges in the path, trail,
or walk

d
c

circuit: a closed trail (ex: a-b-c-d-b-e-d-a)

cycle: closed path (ex: a-b-c-d-a)
44

Graph Theory
simple graph: an undirected graph with no loops or multiple edges

between the same two vertices

multi-graph: any graph that is not simple
connected graph: all vertex pairs are joined by a path
disconnected graph: at least one vertex pairs is not joined by a path
complete graph: all vertex pairs are adjacent
Kn: the completely connected graph with n vertices

Simple graph
b

K5
d
c
Disconnected graph
with two components

d
c
45

Graph Theory
tree: a connected, acyclic graph
directed acyclic graph (DAG): a digraph with no cycles
weighted graph: any graph with weights associated with the edges

(edge-weighted) and/or the vertices (vertex-weighted)

b
5

8
-3

2
e

10

46

MathTerminologies
A Theorem is a major result
A Corollary is a theorem that follows on from another theorem
A Lemma is a small results (less important than a theorem)
Example: Here is a Theorem, a Corollary to it, and also a Lemma!
Theorem:
If m and n are any two whole numbers and
a = m2 n2
b = 2mn
c = m 2 + n2
then a2 + b2 = c2
Proof:
a2 + b2 = (m2 n2)2 + (2mn)2
= m4 2m2n2 + n4 + 4m2n2
= (m2 + n2)2
= c2

(That was a "major" result.)

47

MathTerminologies
A Theorem is a major result
A Corollary is a theorem that follows on from another theorem
A Lemma is a small results (less important than a theorem)
Example: Here is a Theorem, a Corollary to it, and also a Lemma!
Theorem:
Corollary
If m and n are any two whole numbers and
a, b and c, as defined above, are
2
2
a=m n
a Pythagorean Triple
b = 2mn
Proof:
c = m 2 + n2
From the Theorem a2 + b2 = c2, so
then a2 + b2 = c2
a, b and c are a Pythagorean Triple
Proof:
(That result "followed on" from the
previous Theorem.)
a2 + b2 = (m2 n2)2 + (2mn)2
= m4 2m2n2 + n4 + 4m2n2
= (m2 + n2)2
= c2

(That was a "major" result.)

48

MathTerminologies

In a nutshell
A Theorem is a major result
A Corollary is a theorem that follows on from another theorem
A Lemma is a small results (less important than a theorem)
Example: Here is a Theorem, a Corollary to it, and also a Lemma!
Theorem:
Corollary
If m and n are any two whole numbers and
a, b and c, as defined above, are
2
2
a=m n
a Pythagorean Triple
b = 2mn
Proof:
c = m 2 + n2
From the Theorem a2 + b2 = c2, so
then a2 + b2 = c2
a, b and c are a Pythagorean Triple
Proof:
(That result "followed on" from the
previous Theorem.)
a2 + b2 = (m2 n2)2 + (2mn)2
= m4 2m2n2 + n4 + 4m2n2
= (m2 + n2)2
= c2

(That was a "major" result.)

Lemma: If m = 2 and n = 1, then we get the

Pythagorean triple 3, 4 and 5
Proof: If m = 2 and n = 1, then
a = 22 12 = 4 1 = 3
b=221=4
c = 22 + 12 = 4 + 1 = 5
(That was a "small" result.)
49

MathTerminologies
Proposition a proved and often interesting result, but generally less
important than a theorem. if x is odd then x2is odd.
Conjecture a statement that is unproved, but is believed to be true.
Every even number larger than 2 can be written as a sum of two
primes.
Axiom/Postulate a statement that is assumed to be true without proof.
These are the basic building blocks from which all theorems are proved.
One of the axioms of arithmetic is that a + b = b + a. You cant prove that,
but it is the basis of arithmetic and something we use rather often.

50

MATLAB
MATLAB is an interactive environment
Commands are interpreted one line at a time
Commands may be scripted to create your own functions or

procedures
Variables are created when they are used
Variables are typed, but variable names may be reused for different
types
Basic data structure is the matrix
Matrix dimensions are set dynamically
Operations on matrices are applied to all elements of a matrix at
once
Removes the need for looping over elements one by one!
Makes for fast & efficient programmes

51

MATLAB

Worksp
ace

Command
Window
Command
History
52

 Variables
Names

MATLAB

Can be any string of upper and lower case letters along

with numbers and underscores but it must begin with a
letter
Reserved names are IF, WHILE, ELSE, END, SUM,
etc.
Names are case sensitive
Value
This is the data the is associated to the variable; the
data is accessed by using the name.
Variables have the type of the last thing assigned to them
Re-assignment is done silently there are no warnings
if you overwrite a variable with something of a different
type.

To assign a value to a variable use the

equal symbol =
>> A = 32
To find out the value of a variable simply
type the name in
53

MATLAB

54

MATLAB
A MATLAB matrix is a rectangular array of numbers
Scalars and vectors are regarded as special cases of matrices
MATLAB allows you to work with a whole array at a time

You can also use built in functions to create a matrix

>> A = zeros(2, 4)

creates a matrix called A with 2 rows and 4 columns

containing the value 0

>> A = zeros(5) or >> A = zeros(5, 5)

creates a matrix called A with 5 rows and 5 columns

You can also use:

>> ones(rows, columns)

>> rand(rows, columns)

Note: MATLAB always refers to the first value as the

number of Rows then the second as the number of

Columns
55

MATLAB
The colon : is actually an operator, that generates a row vector
This row vector may be treated as a set of indices when accessing a

elements of a matrix
The more general form is
[start:stepsize:end]
>> [11:2:21]

11 13 15 17 19 21
>>
Stepsize does not have to be integer (or positive)
>> [22:-2.07:11]

22.00 19.93 17.86 15.79 13.72 11.65

56

MATLAB
Mathematical Operators:

Add: +
Subtract: Divide: ./
Multiply: .*
Power: .^ (e.g. .^2 means squared)

You can use round brackets to specify the order

in which operations will be performed

Note that preceding the symbol / or * or ^ by a
. means that the operator is applied between
pairs of corresponding elements of vectors of
matrices

57

MATLAB
Combining this with methods from Accessing Matrix Elements

gives way to more useful operations

>> results = zeros(3, 5)
>> results(:, 1:4) = rand(3, 4)
>> results(:, 5) = results(:, 1) + results(:, 2) + results(:, 3) +
results(:, 4)
or
>> results(:, 5) = results(:, 1) .* results(:, 2) .* results(:, 3) .*
results(:, 4)

58

MATLAB
Logical Operators:
Greater Than: >
Less Than: <
Greater Than or Equal To: >=
Less Than or Equal To: <=
Is Equal: ==
Not Equal To: ~=

For example, you can find data that is above a certain limit:
>> r = results(:,1)
>> ind = r > 0.2
Boolean Operators:
AND: &
OR: |
NOT: ~
59

MATLAB
There are a number of special functions that provide useful

constants
pi = 3.14159265.
i or j
= square root of -1
Inf = infinity
NaN
= not a number
Passing a vector to a function like sum, mean, std will calculate the property within

the vector

>> sum([1,2,3,4,5])

= 15

>> mean([1,2,3,4,5])

=3

>> max([1,2,3,4,5])

=5

60

MATLAB
The plot function can be used in different ways:
>> plot(data)
>> plot(x, y)
>> plot(data, r.-)

In the last example the line style is defined

Colour: r, b, g, c, k, y etc.
Point style: . + * x o > etc.
Line style: - -- : .-

1
0.8

A basic plot
>> x =

[0:0.1:2*pi]
>> y = sin(x)
>> plot(x, y,
r.-)

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1

61

MATLAB
>> x = [0:0.1:2*pi];
>> y = sin(x);
>> plot(x, y, 'b*-')

>> plot(x, y*2, r.-')

y

0.5

>> legend('sin(x)', '2*sin(x)');

>> axis([0 6.2 -2 2])

sin(x)
2*sin(x)

1.5

>> hold on

>> title('Sin Plots');

Sin Plots

0
-0.5
-1

>> xlabel(x);
-1.5

>> ylabel(y);
>> hold of

-2

3
x

62

MATLAB
For command
Use a for loop to repeat one or more statements
The end keyword tells Matlab where the loop finishes
You control the number of times a loop is repeated by defining the

values taken by the index variable

This uses the colon operator again, so index values do not need

to be integer

For example
>> for i = 1:4

a(i) = i * 2

end

63

MATLAB
The counter can be used to index different rows or columns
E.g.

>> results = rand(10,3)

>> for i = 1:3

m(i) = mean(results(:, i))

end
..although you could do this in one step
m = mean(results);

64

MATLAB
The if command is used with logical operators
Again, the end command is used to tell Matlab where the statement

ends.
For example, the following code loops through a matrix performing
calculations on each column
>> for i = 1:size(results, 2)

m = results(:, i)

if m > 1

do something

else

do something different

end

end

65