Consolidation

GLE/CEE 330 Lecture Notes

Soil Mechanics

William J. Likos, Ph.D.

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Wisconsin-Madison

Construction
(1173-1399)

Higher
compressibility

CPT Tip Resistance

Profiles for North and
South Sides of Tower

grout injection(361 holes)

(Burland et al., 1998)

Ground water
pumping

Lead weights on North side

(~1993)

Soil Extraction
(1999-2001)

33 tons of soil were excavated

from under the north side
Moved further toward vertical
by 17.72 in.
Now exhibits a 5-degree tilt
Rate of subsidence reduced to
less than a couple of millimeters
per year

Soil Settlement and Compression

1) Immediate Settlement
Elastic deformation, undrained compression (sands, gravels)
2) Primary Consolidation
Time dependent settlement in saturated soil as water is squeezed
from voids due to increase in vertical effective stress (clays)
3) Secondary Consolidation
Particle reorientation, creep, organic decay; does not involve
expulsion of water (highly plastic clays, organics)
4) Distortion Settlement
Lateral movements near edges of loaded area

Changes in Vertical Effective Stress

1) Fill Placement

' z ' z 0 fill H fill

2) External Loading

' z ' z 0 z induced

fill

Hfill

zz

3) Water Table Changes

4) Combinations of 1, 2, and 3
z

(e.g., water table lowering)

Subsidence from Water Table Lowering

Example:

5
5

= 120pcf

Initial GWT
Final GWT

'i z w z w
'i 120 pcf 10' 62.4 pcf 10'
'i 576 psf
' f z w z w

' f 120 pcf 10' 62.4 pcf 5'

' f 888 psf

USGS

Primary Consolidation:
Piston-Spring Analogy

1. The container is completely filled with water, and the hole is closed. (Fully saturated soil)
2. A load is applied onto the piston, while the hole is still unopened. At this stage, only the water
resists the applied load. (Development of excessive pore water pressure)
3. As soon as the hole is opened, water starts to drain out through the hole and the spring
shortens. (Drainage of excessive pore water)
4. After some time, the drainage of water no longer occurs. Now, the spring alone resists the
applied load. (Full dissipation of excessive pore water pressure. End of consolidation)

u u0

'v ' v 0

Flow

v P

A
u u0 u

u
so

u u0 v

'v

u u0

'v 'v 0 v

'v v u
'v 0
Spring is analogous to effective stress (stress carried by soil skeleton)
Initially, the pore water takes up the change in total stress so effective stress does not
change
As excess pore water pressure drains, the effective stress increases (skeleton takes up
load)
Consolidation is complete when excess pressure dissipates and flow stops
So consolidation is TIME DEPENDENT because it is a pressure dissipation (flow) process!

Example 11.2 (Coduto, 1999)

Before Fill:
A 18.7 1 19 2 16.5 4.8 136kPa
u A 9.81 6.8 67 kPa

' A A u A 69kPa
Short Term After Fill:
A 136 19.5 5 234kPa

u A u A0 u u A0 67 19.5 5 165kPa

' A A u A 69kPa

Long Term After Fill:

A 136 19.5 5 234kPa

u A u A0 67 kPa
' A A u A 167 kPa

Consolidation (Oedometer) Testing

1-D consolidation test:
Undisturbed saturated soil (clay, silt) representative of in-situ stratum
Typical specimen size: h = 1, diam. = 2-3
Specimen confined in rigid ring (no lateral deformation, plane strain)
Drainage allowed on top and bottom via porous stones
Apply increment of load and measure 1-D compression with time

Trimming Procedures

(Bardet, 1997)

Assumptions
1) All compression occurs due to change in void ratio
i.e., the grains do not compress
Thus, we can relate change in void ratio (e) to change in volume
e

Vv
Vs

if Vv then e

2) All strains are vertical (1-D)

H0

H
e0

H V

H0
Vt

where V Vv
Vv
Vv
Vv Vs
e

V
V
Vt
Vv Vs
1 e0
v
s
Vs
Vs

e
1 e0

Procedures for Incremental Consol Testing

1) Trimming
2) Specimen set up and initialization (seating load, v0)
3) Apply an increment of vertical load ( v = P/A)
4) Record H with time, compute e with time
5) Monitor until volume change ceases (~24 h)
6) Repeat 3-5 to generate load-compression curve
aka e-log p curve

v0
e0
e1

e1

2nd

e2
en

e0

1st increment
~24h

nth
We will use this data to predict
rate of consolidation
time

v1 v2 vn

e2
en

We will use this data

to predict magnitude
of consol settlement

log v

The e-log p curve

Loading
Loading

Unloading
Unoading

San Francisco Bay Mud (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

 Divide e-log p curve into linear segments

OC
Compression

OC = Overconsolidated (stiff response)

NC = Normally Consolidated (soft response)
OC and NC portions separated by p

Cr

Virgin (NC)
Compression

p = maximum past pressure

Cr = Recompression Index (slope of OC)

Cc

Cc = Compression Index (slope of NC)

Cs = Swell Index (slope of unload response)

Cr

e
log '

e
Cc
log '
e
Cs
log '
Cc C r
Cr Cs

0.01 ~ Cr ~ 0.5

A B

Cs

0.1 ~ Cc ~ 2.6
B C

C D

(Bardet, 1997)

Stress History
Maximum past pressure ( p ) quantifies
The stress history of the soil it is the
largest magnitude of effective stress the soil
has been consolidated to in the past.

OC

Cr

Overconsolidation Ratio (OCR) quantifies the

magnitude of a soils existing state of stress
relative to its maximum past stress.

'p
OCR
'
If OCR = 1, then p = and the soil is
normally consolidated (soft response
virgin compression)
If OCR > 1, then p > and the soil is over
consolidated (stiff response it has been
precompressed)
Sources of Overconsolidation:
Extensive erosion
Past glacial activity
Removed structures
Risen water table
Evaporation

NC

Cc

D
C

Cs

Disturbance & Empirical Correlations

For NC or undisturbed specimens:

C c 0.009( LL 10)
For OC or disturbed specimens:
(Disturbance decreases virgin compressibility)

C c 0.007( LL 10)
In general:

Cr
0.1 ~ 0.2
Cc

Disturbance erases stress history

Load-Rebound Behavior
Maximum past stress (aka preconsolidation
Stress) is a plastic yield stress.
If unloading occurs at a stress less than p,
then the soil rebounds elastically.

A
eA

If unloading occurs at a stress greater than

p, then a new p results and the soil
rebounds plastically.
Similar to elastic-plastic response you
learned about in Mechanics of Materials
ec

yield
stress

p
A = C

plastic
deformation

Casagrande Construction for p

(Coduto, 1999)

Calculating Consolidation Settlement

1)

Site characterization to quantify thickness of

compressible layer.

2)

1-D laboratory consolidation testing to determine

stress history and compression indices ( p, Cc,
Cr, Cs). Will also need cv for rate prediction.

3)

Divide compressible layer into sublayers.

4)

Calculate initial (preconstruction) effective

vertical stress at midpoint of each sublayer ( i).

5)

6)

Calculate final post-construction effective vertical

stress at midpoint of each sublayer ( f).

Fill

Soft
Clay

fill
1

H1

H2

H3

H4

Rock

Calculate consolidation settlement for each

sublayer ( H) and sum for total settlement.

Cr H
H
1 e0

'p

log
'i

Cc H

1 e0

'f

log

' p

Where did that equation come from?

OC

e0

e e f e0
e comes from compression in the
OC range and in the NC range.

Cr

e
ef

For OC portion:

eoc Cr log ' p log 'i

'p

eoc Cr log
'i

Cs

For NC portion:

enc Cc log ' f log ' p

'f

enc Cr log
So,

'
p

'f
'p

e eoc enc Cr log

Cc log
'
'
p
f

' p Cc H
e
Cr H

H H H

log
1 e0 1 e0
'i 1 e0

NC

Cc

'f

log

' p

What if f < p ?

OC

In other words, what if we put a load on a

highly overconsolidated deposit? (maybe
significant past glacial activity).

e0
ef

Cr
NC

Cc

Consolidation will result solely from

recompression.
Settlement will be relatively small because
response is stiff.

Cs

Equation must be modified:

CH
H r
1 e0

'f
log
'i

What if i = p ?

OC

In other words, what if we put a load on a

normally consolidated (NC) deposit?

OCR

e0

Cr

'p
1
'

Consolidation will result solely from virgin

compression.

ef
Cs

Settlement will be relatively large because

response is soft.
Equation must be modified:

CH
H c
1 e0

'f

log

' p

NC

Cc

i p

xample Fill Placement

4.5 m
A

9m
B

Prop.

Cc

0.25

0.20

Cr

0.08

0.06

e0

0.66

0.45

101 kPa

510 kPa

See Coduto for solution using 7 layers

Lets try using two layers (A and B)

' Ai 18.3 2 19 2.5 9.81 2.5

' Ai 60 kPa
' Af ' Ai 60 20.3 8.5
' Af 233 kPa
Compare to max past stress:
60 101 233
Log
e

' Af ' Ap ' Ai

Need both terms

CH
H A r
1 e0

'p

log

'i

'f

log

' p
0.25 9m log 233

1 0.66
101

Cc H

1 e0

0.08 9m log 101

H A

1 0.66
60
H A 0.097 0.49 0.59 m

Now for layer B:

' Bi 18.3 2 19 7 19.5 9 9.8116

' Bi 188 kPa
' Bf 'Bi 188 20.3 8.5
' Bf 361 kPa
Compare to max past stress:
188
e

510

361

Log

'Bf ' Bp
Only need
Cr term

Prop.

Cc

0.25

0.20

Cr

0.08

0.06

e0

0.66

0.45

101 kPa

510 kPa

H B
H B

Cr H
1 e0

'f
'i

log

0.0618m log
1 0.45

361

188

H B 0.21 m
so
H tot H A H B 0.8 m

Compare to solution for 7

layers. Htot = 0.83 m

http://www.prenhall.com/coduto/html/Geotechnical/Software.htm

Rate of Consolidation Settlement

Recall that consolidation is volume change due to pore water being squeezed out

Dissipation of excess pore pressure

So consolidation takes time!!! depends on:

Hydraulic conductivity (k)

Drainage boundaries (max length of drainage path, Hdr)

Fill

Soft
Clay

Rock

Excess
= Transient
Pressure
Profile
u
u

Static
+
Pressure
us

fill

Hdr

Long Immediate
Term

Consider a case of double-drainage (like an oedometer test)

Top porous disk

z

Saturated
Clay

H0

u0
u f ( z, t )

tp

Bottom porous disk u 0

t2

t1 t0

So there is a hydraulic gradient from middle of sample to boundaries

The magnitude of the gradient decreases with time

So flow rate decreases with time Q k dht A
Volume
dL
So rate of volume change decreases with time

We want to be able to plan for this!

Time

Drainage Path Length, Hdr

dht
Qk
A
dL

Flow rate (rate of consolidation) depends on k and dh t/dL

Single
Drainage

Double
Drainage

Ground surface,
sand layer, etc.

Ground surface,
sand layer, etc.

Saturated
Clay

Impervious Rock,
Aquitard, etc.

Hdr = H0

Saturated
Clay

Pervious layer,
sand, etc.

Hdr = H0
Significantly
decreases
time for
consolidation

Sand Drains at Kansai Intnl. Airport

1-D Consolidation Theory

We seek a solution for excess pressure a function of location and time
Dissipation of excess pressure is a diffusion process governed by 1-D PDE

u
2u
cv 2
t
z

u f ( z, t )

cv = Coefficient of Consolidation
(determined from lab or field testing)

u0
z

Saturated
Clay

H0

u f ( z, t )

u0

tp

t2

t1 t0

u
2u
cv 2
t
z
k (1 e)
cv
av w
de
av
d '

Units of cv = L2/T (e.g., m2/year)

Coefficient of compressibility
av
e

or in terms of strain...

k
cv
mv w
d
mv
d '

Coefficient of
volume compressibility

mv

Solution of the Consolidation Equation

Assumptions:
1. Darcys Law is valid
2. Soil solids and fluid are incompressible
3. Sr = 100%
4. Linear compressibility (const av or mv)
Boundary Conditions:
u0

Saturated
Clay 2

u
u
cv 2
t
z

u z 0, t 0

u
u
cv 2
t
z
2

H0

u0

u z H 0 , t 0
Initial Conditions:
u z , t 0 u0

Solution is infinite Fourier series:

2u0
Mz M 2T
u z, t
sin
e
M
H
m 0
dr

2m 1
2

cv t
(Time Factor)
2
H dr

How Can We Apply This Solution?

Consider Kansai Airport.How much consolidation for given time?
Define Percent Consolidation U

S
U t 100%
S

St = consol settlement at any time t

S = consol settlement at end of primary

2 M 2T
U 1 2 e
m 0 M
Note that U only depends on time (T) Percent
consolidation is independent of load!!!

cv t
T
2
H dr

Example 1: How long for 90% consolidation?

U 0.90
From figure, T = 0.848

cv t
T
0.848
2
H dr

0.848 H dr
t

Sand

cv

0.84810'
2

0.05 ft / day

t 4.6 years

Clay
cv = 0.05 ft2/day

1696 days

20

If S = 4.0, how long for 2 of settlement?

St 2'
U
0.5
S 4'

(50%)

From figure, T = 0.196

Clay
cv = 0.05 ft2/day

cv t
T
0.196
2
H dr

Sand

0.196 H dr
t

cv

0.19610' 2
2

0.05 ft / day
t 1.1 years

394 days

20

If bottom boundary is impervious, how long for 90% consolidation?

U 0.90
From figure, T = 0.848

Clay
cv = 0.05 ft2/day

cv t
T
0.848
2
H dr

Impervious Rock

0.848 H dr
t

cv

0.848 20' 2
2

0.05 ft / day

6784 days

t 18.6 years !!!!!!

20

Compute total consolidation settlement and time for 95%

consolidation
OCR = 1, so clay is NC.

'i ' p

Prop. fill
= 100pcf

Analyze using Point A at midpoint of clay

Clay
k = 10-6 cm/s

' Ai 100 25 62.4 25 940 psf

e0 = 1.2

' A f 940 100 20 2940 psf

'A f
Cc H

S H
log

1 eo

'
Ai

0.4 50'
2940
S
log
4.5'
1 1.2
940

Cc = 0.40
G = 100 pcf
OCR = 1

20

25
50

Impervious Rock

Not given cv, so need to calculate

k
cv
mv w

Prop. fill
= 100pcf

4.5'

2
H0
d
5 ft
50
'
mv

4.5 10
d '
'
2000 psf
lb
so

cv

10

cm / s 1 ft / 30.5cm 86,400 s / day

1.009 ft 2 / day
5
2
4.5 10 ft / lb 62.4 pcf

Clay
k = 10-6 cm/s
e0 = 1.2
Cc = 0.40
G = 100 pcf
OCR = 1

25
50

Impervious Rock

If U = 95%, T = 1.129

1.129 50' 7.7 years

T H dr
t

cv
1.009 ft 2 / day
2

20

St U S 0.95 4.5' 4.28'

(Bardet, 1997)

Log-Time Method for Determining cv

(Bardet, 1997)

e0
e1

plot deformation
vs. log time

e2
en

time
1)

Select some point near U = 50% (tb, db) (this is an estimate of d50)

2)

Find ta such that tb = 4ta

3)

Calculate (db da) and find d0 = da (db da)

4)

Find d100 graphically with two tangent lines

5)

Calculate actual d50 as (d0 + d100); find corresponding t50

6)

Calculate cv using t50 and time factor T

cv t50 0.197
H dr 2
2

0.197 H dr

T50
cv

t50

Square-Root-Time Method for Determining cv

(Bardet, 1997)

*Preferred method in practice (dont need to wait for t100)

cv t90 0.848
H dr 2
2

0.848 H dr

1)

Extrapolate linear portion backward to find d0

T90

2)
3)
4)

Measure length of segment AB (linear portion)

Draw AC such that AC = 1.15(AB)
Draw line through d0 and C to find d90 and t90

cv

5)

Calculate cv using t90 and time factor T

t90

Secondary Compression
t

ts

es C log10

ts

s C log10

C = secondary compression index

C = mod. secondary compression index
ts = time of start of secondary comp.
t = time

Additional time-dependent compression after primary consolidation

Not due to dissipation of excess pore pressure (expulsion of water)
Relatively small amount of volume change
Creep, particle reorientation, organic decomposition

Secondary Compression

C 0.0001 wn