Evolution, Biodiversity & Population

Ecology

Jorge Membrillo

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Evolution
genetic

change in populations of organisms

across generations.
modifications

appearance:

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Evolution

functioning: beaks in honeycreepers

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Natural Selection
explains

the great variety of living organisms.

derives from several premises noticed in
nature

Natural Selection Premises

constant

struggle of organisms to survive

and mate
organisms tend to produce more offspring
that can survive.
individuals of the same species are not
identical

variation

Variation
genetical

differences
environment within which genes are
expressed
interaction between genes and environment
Adaptation: trait that promotes success of a
species

Effects of Natural Selection on Genetic

Variation
Mutations:

accidental changes in the

nucleotide sequence of the DNA
addition
deletion
substitution

Sexual Reproduction also Generates

Variation
recombination

of genes produces a novel

combination generating variation

directional selection
stabilizing selection
disruptive selection

Directional selection
selection

that drives a feature in one

direction

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Stabilizing selection
preserves

status quo, no changes

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Disruptive Selection
traits

diverge into two or more directions

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Evidence of Natural Selection

Selective

breeding
breeding of domesticated animals and plants

dog and cat breeds

variations of Brassica oleracea
artificial selection

Biodiversity

Total of all organisms in the area

Evolution generates biological diversity

diversity of species
gene pool
populations
communities
as of 2008 1:3 amphibians, 1:7 birds and 1:5 mammals is
considered endangered or threaten (National Geographic)

Species: organism that is able to reproduce and

have viable offspring

Speciation: Allopatric & Sympatric

Allopatric:

species form due to physical

separation
mutations can occur independently
members of different populations don't mate
populations continue diverging through time
single species can generate multiple species
through time

Separation of Populations

glacial ice sheets during ice ages

change of course of major rivers
rise of mountain ranges
evaporation of major lakes into smaller bodies of water
temperature variation causing migration of plant populations
creating new patterns of animal/plant distribution
isolation must remain for thousands of generations
reunion of populations may occur, but if they are not able to
interbreed, two or more new species have emerged.

Sympatric
reproductively

isolated due to behavioral

causes
feeding at different times of the day
feed at different sites
mating on different times of the year
hybridization in some plants
mutations causing change in number of
chromosomes

Diversification
as

a result of numerous speciation events

phylogenetic trees explain differences and
similarities between species
Speciation and extinction
natural process that takes 1-10 million years

 Diversification

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Species Vulnerable to Extinction

some species may be more vulnerable than others

due to change in environmental conditions

climate change
rise and fall of sea level
arrival of harmful species
extreme weather events (drought, flood, etc.)

Endemic: single small population present only in a

particular type of environment: Attwater chicken

Attwater Chicken

1 million individuals in 1900

50 or so individuals today
habitat disruption

oil industry, housing, cattle, rice

fields

predators (snake, rat, skunk)

diseases
weather
collision (fence, cars)
fire ants (kill chicks)

Levels of Ecological Organization

Species
Population
Communities
Ecosystems
Biosphere

 Ecological
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Organization

Habitat, Niche and Specialization

Habitat:

living and non-living elements

around a species

thriving of a species depends on patterns of

habitat use
each species' habitat is scale dependent
habitat selection is possible if the species is
mobile
the survival of the species depends if the habitat
is suitable or not

Niche

a species' niche reflects its use of resources and

functional role in the ecosystem
"job"
specialists and generalists

Prairie dog
eats grasses and keeps grass low for predator control
more grass grown around burrow because

airiates soil by digging

soil becomes richer near burrows because of dung

burrow houses other animals when empty (snakes, rabbits,

owls)

Population Ecology

Population size: number of individuals present at a

given time

Population density: number of individuals per

population per unit area

Attwater chicken- 1 million to 50 individuals

golden toad- large population in a small area

Population distribution: spatial arrangement of

organisms within an area. There are 3 types.

Population Distribution: Random

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Uniform

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Clumped

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Population Ecology

sex ratio: depends on the behavior (monogamous or

polygamous) of the species, type of reproduction
(autofecundates or different sexes)
age structure: age structure diagrams
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Population Ecology

birth and death rates: survivorship curves

type I: higher mortality at older age
type II: equal rate of death at any age
type III: higher rate of death at younger age

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k-selected

r-selected

Population Ecology

Immigration
emigration
growth rate
Unregulated population increase: shows exponential
growth= J curve

carrying capacity causes logistic growth curve (S curve) to

show
caused by an environmental resistance (water, food,
shelter, predators, disease)

Density-dependent factors
its

influence is affected by the population

density

competition
food
shelter
mate
water
s-shaped

curve

Density-independent factors
influence

is not affected by population

density; can eliminate large numbers of
individuals without regard to its density
extreme temperatures
catastrophic climate events
fires
volcano eruptions

Biotic Potential vs Reproductive

Strategy
k-selected

(k stands for Carrying capacity)

low biotic potential
long gestation period
protects offspring as an investment for
species survivor
relative few offspring during lifetime
type 1 curve

eg: humans, whale, rhino, elephant

 r-selected

(r stands for rate)

focus on quantity not quality

high biotic potential

large number of offspring
survivor of offspring depends on chance
type 3 curve
eg. fish, frogs, snails

Conservation of Biodiversity
social

and economic factors

human behavior towards environment

economy vs environmental protection

protection

of environment

began without much government support

even today governments may not have the funds
ecotourism is the key

Now Quiz time!

Please

write down the features of an

ecosystem where you live, name the species
around, niches, populations, diversification,
endanger organisms, evolution, natural
selection, and more. (at least one page )