Principles of Food

Engineering
AG31005

Equations for Compression of Gases

In blowers and compressors pressure changes are large and
compressible flow occurs. Since the density changes markedly,
the mechanical-energy-balance equation must be written in
differential form and then integrated to obtain the work of
compression.
p1 = suction pressure
dp
p2 = discharge pressure

dW

p2

dp
W

p1

 Isothermal compression: For isothermal compression, p/p is a

constant equal to RT/M, where R= 8314.3 J/kg mol K
p1 p

p1
Ws
1

p2

dp p1 p2 2.3026 RT1
p2
p p 1 ln p1 M log p1
1

Also T1= T2 since the process is isothermal.

 For adiabatic compression, the fluid follows an isentropic path and

p1 1

where c p / cVthe ratio of heat capacities.

RT1
Ws
1 M

p2
p1

The adiabatic temperatures are related by

T2 p2

T1 p1

To calculate the brake power when the efficiency is ,

brake kW = (-Ws .m)/(1000 . )
m is flow rate in kg/s
Wp= Ws.m/1000.
Wp (J/kg) is the shaft work delivered to the pump
Ws (J/kg) is the theoretical mechanical energy added to the fluid.

Introduction of fluid
Most low molecular weight substances such as organic
and inorganic liquids, solutions of low molecular weight
inorganic salts, molten metals and salts, and gases
exhibit Newtonian flow characteristics, i.e., at constant
temperature and pressure, in simple shear, the shear
stress() is proportional to the rate of shear () and
the constant of proportionality is the familiar dynamic
viscosity () or .
Such fluids are classically known as the Newtonian
fluids,
For most liquids, the viscosity decreases with
temperature. For gases, it increases with both
temperature and pressure.

 Broadly, higher is the viscosity of a substance,

more resistance it offers to flow (and hence more
difficult to pump!). Table 1 provides typical values
of viscosity for scores of common fluids .

Non-Newtonian Fluids
Table 2 Examples of substances exhibiting non-Newtonian
Fluid Behaviour

Classification of Fluid Behavior

Newtonian Fluid-In simple shear (Fig. 1), the
response of a Newtonian fluid is characterized by
a linear relationship between the applied shear
stress and the rate of shear, i.e.,

Fig. 1 and equation (1),

represent the simplest
case wherein there is
only
one
non-zero
component of velocity,
Vx, which is a function
of y.

Fig. 1

Newtonian Fluid

The flow curves

pass through the
origin
and
the
viscosity
values
are = 11.6 Pa.s
for corn syrup and
= 64 mPa.s for
the cooking oil.

 For the general case of three dimensional flow

(Fig. 3), clearly there are six shearing and three
normal components of the stress tensor, S. It is
customary to split the total stress into an isotropic
part (pressure) and a deviatoric part as
Where s is traceless, i.e., tr s = 0, and pressure is
consistent with the continuity equation.

Fig. 3 Stress components in three dimensional flow

Non-Newtonian Fluid Behaviour

The simplest possible deviation from the
Newtonian fluid behavior occurs when the simple
shear data does not pass through the origin
and/ or does not result into a linear relationship
between and .
Conversely, the apparent viscosity, defined as /
, is not constant and is a function of or .
Indeed, under appropriate circumstances, the
apparent viscosity of certain materials is not only
a function of flow conditions (geometry, rate of
shear, etc.), but it also depends on the kinematic
history of the fluid element under consideration.

Non-Newtonian Fluid Behaviour

Time independent : those
whose
shear
stress
is
independent of time or duration
of shear
Time-dependent: and those
whose shear stress is dependent
on time or duration of shear.
Viscoelastic fluids: In addition to unusual shear-stress
behavior, some non-Newtonian fluids also exhibit elastic
(rubberlike) behavior which is a function of time and results in
their being. These fluids exhibit normal stresses perpendicular
to the direction of flow in addition to the usual tangential
stresses.

Time-Independent Fluids
Bingham plastic fluids: These fluids differ from Newtonian only
in that the linear relationship does not go through the origin. A
finite shear stress (called yield stress) in N/m2 is needed to
initiate flow.
Some fluids have a finite yield (shear) stress , but the plot of
versus -dv/dr is curved upward or downward. However, this
departure from exact Bingham plasticity is often small. This is
called visco-plastic fluid.
Examples of fluids with a yield stress are drilling muds, peat
slurries, margarine, chocolate mixtures, greases, soap, grainwater suspensions, toothpaste, paper pulp, and sewage sludge.

Time-Independent Fluids
Pseudoplastic fluids:
The majority of nonNewtonian fluids are in this category and include
polymer solutions or melts, greases, starch
suspensions,
mayonnaise,
biological
fluids,
detergent slurries, dispersion media in certain
pharmaceuticals, and paints. The shape of the flow
curve is shown in Fig., and it generally can be
represented by a power-law equation (sometimes
dv
n
called Ostwald-de
Waele equation).
dv

y ap
y K ........ n1
dr
dr
where K is the consistency
index in N sn /m2 and n is
the flow behavior index,
dimensionless

dv
ap K

dr

n 1

Time-Independent Fluids
Dilatant fluids: These fluids are far less common than
pseudoplastic fluids and their flow behavior shows an increase in
apparent viscosity with increasing shear rate. The power law
equation is often applicable, but with n > 1.
Solutions showing dilatancy are some corn flour-sugar solutions,
wet beach sand, starch in water, potassium silicate in water, and
some solutions containing high concentrations of powder in
water.

Time-Dependent Fluids
Thixotropicfluids: These fluids exhibit a reversible decrease in shear
stress with time at a constant rate of shear. when these materials are
sheared their apparent viscosity decreases as the shearing continues:
they become runny when stirred (forming a sol) and reset on standing
(forming a gel). In scientific terms thixotropy is a reversible isothermal
gel-sol-gel transformation. Examples include some polymer solutions,
shortening, some food materials, and paints.
Rheopectic fluids: These fluids are quite rare in occurrence and exhibit
a reversible increase in shear stress with time at a constant rate of shear.
Examples are bentonite clay suspensions, certain sols, and gypsum
suspensions. Their apparent viscosity increases with shear rate and
duration of shear, giving a reversible, isothermal sol-gel-sol
transformation. This occurs only at moderate shear rates, as above a
certain shear rate the structure does not form.

Viscoelastic Fluids
Viscoelastic fluids exhibit elastic recovery from the
deformations that occur during flow.
They show both viscous and elastic properties. Part of the
deformation is recovered upon removal of the stress. Examples
are flour dough, napalm, polymer melts, and bitumens.

Behaviour of Viscoelastic fluids

Laminar Flow of Time-Independent

Non-Newtonian Fluids
The pressure drop P , N/m2 for a given flow rate q m3/s is
measured in a straight tube of length L m and diameter D m.
This is repeated for different flow rates or average velocities v
m/s. if the fluid is time-independent, these flow data can be
used to predict the flow in any other pipe size.
A plot of D P /4L, which is w , the shear stress at the wall in
N/m2, versus 8V/D, which is proportional to the shear rate at the
wall, is shown in Fig for a power-law fluid following Eq.
Dp
8V
w
K '

4L
D

n'

where n' is the slope of the line when the data

are plotted on logarithmic coordinates and K'
has units of N . Sn/m2 For n' =1, the fluid is
Newtonian; for n' < 1, pseudoplastic, or Bingham
plastic if the curve does not go through the
origin; and for n' > I, dilatant.

Power-law fluid
Dp
' 8v
w
K

4L
D

n'

General flow curve for a power-law

fluid in laminar flow in a rube.
The shear rate at the wall, ( - dv/dr)w , is

dv

dr

3n'1 8v

4n' D

n' n
3n'1

4n'

K' K

Generalised viscosity coefficient isK '8n ' 1

Where has units of N.sn/m2

Some data give values instead of K' values, so the

above equation can be used to convert these values if
necessary.

Equations for flow in a tube.

In order to predict the frictional pressure drop p in laminar
flow in a tube, power law Eq. is solved for p .
K '4 L 8V
p

D D

n'

the average velocity will be

D pD
V

8 K '4 L

1/ n

If the equations are desired in terms of K instead of K,from

the earlier equations we can get, noting that v=vxav
V xav

n p0 p L

3n 1 aKL

1/ n

R0( n 1) / n

 The flow must be laminar and the generalized Reynolds

number has been defined as
N Re, gen

D n 'V 2 n ' D n 'V 2 n '

K '8n '1

D n 'V 2 n '
3n 1
K 8n 1

4
n

Friction factor method:

Alternatively, using the Fanning friction factor method given
for Newtonian fluids, but using the generalized Reynolds
numbers,
f

16
N Re, gen

L V2
p 4 f
D 2

Friction Losses in Contractions,

Expansions, and Fittings in Laminar Flow
Kinetic energy in laminar flow-average kinetic energy per unit
mass of fluid is
average kinetic energy/kg =V2/2
For Newtonian fluids, = 1 for laminar flow. For power-law
non-Newtonian fluids,

2n 1 5n 3
3 3n 1

For example, if n =0.50, = 0.585. If n = 1.00, =1/2. For

turbulent flow for Newtonian and non-Newtonian flow, =1

 Losses in contractions and fittings: when a fluid leaves a tank and

flows through a sudden contraction to a pipe of diameter D2 or flows
from a pipe of diameter D1 through a sudden contraction to a pipe of
D2 a vena contracta is usually formed downstream from the
contraction. General indications are that the frictional pressure losses
for pseudoplastic and Bingham plastic fluids are very similar to those
for Newtonian fluids at the same generalized Reynolds numbers in
laminar and turbulent flow for contractions and also for fittings and
valves.
For contraction losses, where = 1.0 for turbulent flow

A2 22
22

hc 0.55 1
Kc
A1 2
2

for laminar flow to determine , since n is not 1.00 equation will be

2n 1 5n 3
3 3n 1

For fittings and valves, frictional losses should be determined

using
v
hf K f

2
1

Losses in sudden expansion

For the frictional loss for a non-Newtonian fluid in laminar
flow through a sudden expansion from D1 to D2 diameter,
D1
3n 1 2 n 3 D1
3(3n 1)

hex
V1
2n 1 2(5n 3) D2
D2
2(5n 3)

where hex is the frictional loss in J/kg.

Turbulent Flow and Generalized Friction Factors
In turbulent flow of time-independent fluids the
Reynolds number at which turbulent flow occurs
varies with the flow properties of the nonNewtonian fluid.

 theoretical equation for turbulent flow of non-Newtonian

fluids through smooth round tubes. the Fanning friction
factor is plotted versus the generalized Reynolds
number, N Re, gen

Velocity Profiles for Non-Newtonian Fluids

For the pseudoplastic and dilatent fluid, for pipe flow:
d x
rx K

dr

For all fluids the following equation will be true for rx at the
radial distance r from the centre.
p p r
rx

2L

Equating the above two equations and integrating between r =

r and r = R0 where vx =0
n p0 p L
vx

n 1 2 KL

At r=0, vx= vmax

1/ n

R0( n 1) / n 1
R

v x vmax 1

R0

( n 1) / n

( n 1) / n

 The velocity profile for laminar flow of a non-Newtonian fluid can

be greatly different than velocity profile for a Newtonian that of a
non-Newtonian fluid.
For pseudoplastic fluids (n < 1), a relatively flat velocity profile is
obtained compared to the parabolic profile for a Newtonian fluid.
For extreme pseudoplastic behaviour n=0, plug flow is obtained
across the entire pipe.
For dilitant fluids (n > 1), velocity profile is more pointed and
narrower. For extreme dilatent fluids n = , the velocity is a linear
function of the radius.