Sampling Process and Data Collection

Sampling
In an experimental study covering the entire population is not possible
because it is costly, time consuming, laborious and complication for
handling data. Hence it is preferable to use an appropriate sampling
technique.
(
i) Population
A statistical population/universe is the aggregate (totality) of
measurements on characters under investigation.
For example
Population of doctors in a hospital, women of child bearing period (1549) in a village, smokers in a city, cancer patients in a district etc.
sample
(ii) Sample A small part (finite sub set) of statistical
Individuals chosen from the population for
studying its properties is called a sample.
The number of units in a sample is known
as sample size.

Types of sampling techniques

The mechanism of sampling design to be used in a sample
survey depends on the objective, scope of the inquiry, nature of
the universe, size of the sample and available resources.
Basically sampling procedures are of two types:
Non - random (Non-probability) sampling
In non-random sampling selection of sample units are based on
personal opinion and views where as in random sampling
sample units are selected in accordance of some specified
probabilistic law.
Purposive / Subjective / Judgment Sampling
snow ball sampling
Quota Sampling

Random sampling

Simple random sampling

Stratified random sampling
Systematic sampling
Cluster sampling
Multi-stage sampling

Non-random sampling

The sampling techniques encountered under non-random sampling

are:
Purposive sampling

In purposive sampling, the sampling units are chosen without

following any scientific law or theory so as to meet a definite
purpose. Because of victim of bias due to element of
subjectiveness viz. favoritism and nepotism of the investigator
this technique, in general, does not provide a representative
sample of the population and is seldom use in practice. In this
method, the samplers choice regarding the items remains
supreme. However, if the investigator is well experienced and
the knowledge of the population is available then purposive
sampling may yield valuable results.
For example A sample of syringe selected by the seller for inspection;
gallop pull of individuals belonging to a particular group etc.

Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling : if the sampling frame
and population is not well defined then non of
sampling starategy works. In such case we
first locate any sampling unit at any cost and
take help of this sampling unit to find another
units and so on until we get appropriate no of
samples. As the size of sample gets larger
and larger each time like that of the size of
the snowball this method of sampling is
known as snowball sampling. This type of
sampling is done for cases like taking
responses where the respondent do not like
to reveal their identity.

Quota Sampling

Quota Sampling
A quota sampling is a special form of stratified
sampling. In this method, the population is first
divided into several strata and the sample units
usually known as quota is selected from
different strata according to the convenience of
the sampler so as to meet the predetermined
sample size.
For example Public opinion poll from n individuals consisting
n1 technicians, n2 administrators, n3 laborers,
etc. regarding in favor or against nuclear power
plant.

Random sampling/Probability sampling

Random sampling/Probability sampling

The sampling techniques encountered under probability
random sampling are:
Simple random sampling
Definition - A sampling scheme wherein each and every unit of
the population has an equal chance of being included in the
sample is known as simple random sampling.
(i) Simple random sampling without replacement
(SRSWOR)
SRSWOR is a sampling scheme in which sampling units are
drawn successively one at a time followed by no replacement
of the drawn unit.
(ii) Simple random sampling with replacement
(SRSWR)
SRSWR is a sampling technique in which sampling units are
drawn successively one at a time followed by the replacement
of the drawn unit.

Method of drawing samplein simple

random Sampling
(a) Lottery method
Suppose, an investigator wishes to put on
trial 20 patients out of 100 in a random
manner. Under lottery scheme the procedure
is to select 100 slips, which are identical in all
respects (shape, size, color etc.), and note
the 20 patients name on it (one name on
each slip). The slips are then placed in a
container or bag, well shuffled and 20 slips
are then drawn one at a time as in lottery
system with blind fold. The outcome 20
names constitute the random sample of
patients to put on trail.

Random number method

Random number method
This method is specially preferred when the size of the population is large. For this
we consider a random table prepared by Kendal and Smith which consists of
100,000 digits grouped into 25,000 sets of 4 digital random numbers. These
numbers are obtained by using a specially constructed machine, a refined version of
the common roulette wheel used in gambling. Given below is the sample of 25
random numbers of Kendal and Smith's random series:
2315 1174 0709 0924 9783
0554 4336 4331 9795 8916
1487 9380 6157 9373 2596
3897 4954 3135 7262 8144
9731 3676 5704 6102 1132
The popularity of the random number series lies in the fact that they can be read on
any page, at any point and in any direction (row wise, column wise or diagonally).
Suppose we want to obtain a random sample of n = 20 patients out of N = 100
patients. First assign serial numbers to all 100 (1 to 100) patients at random. Next a
page of a random number is turned out and starting from any point and in any
direction horizontally or vertically, 20 three digital figures are recorded by ignoring
the figures greater than 100 or for any number greater than 100, divide by 100 and
take the remainder as sample number i,e if the selected number is 245, the random
sample number is 45 and so on. The 20 patients corresponding to those 20 selected
numbers constitute the desired random sample.

Stratified random sampling

Definition
A stratified random sample is a random sample obtained
by categorizing the population elements into nonoverlapping groups, called strata, and then selecting a
simple random sample within each stratum.
This technique is specially recommended when the
population under investigation is heterogeneous. Under
this method the heterogeneous population under study is
first divided into relatively homogeneous groups called
strata in accordance of certain characteristic such as
blood pressure (High, medium or low), patient type
(cancer, tuberculosis or diabetics ), economic status
( rich, middle class or poor ) etc. and a sample is drawn
from each stratum at random in proportion to its size. The
aggregate of selected units from different strata represent
the required sample units.

Systematic sampling

This method is most widely used in field studies when the

population is large, scattered, heterogeneous and a
complete list of population is available.
Suppose we are interested to select a sample of size n =
10 % of 300 = 30 vaccine bottles out of 300 vaccine
bottles in a systematic sampling technique. For that we
have 10 % of 300 = 30 units so that sampling interval
becomes Where N = population size
Next the whole vaccine bottles are arranged
systematically, assign numbers serially from 1 to 300,
divide into 30 groups of 10 vaccine bottles each. Next a
random number is chosen by simple random sample
method. Suppose the chosen number is 4 then the sample
will consist of 30 vaccine bottles possessing numbers 4, 14,
24, 34, 44, 54, 64 and so on from 1st., 2nd., 3rd group
respectively which provides 30 sample vaccine bottles.

Cluster sampling

Definition
A cluster sampling is a SRS in which sampling
unit is a collection or cluster of elements.
In a certain district having 200 schools if 10
schools are chosen under SRS technique and
enumerate all the units within the selected
schools, then, the schools so selected are
known as clusters and the technique is known
as cluster sampling.
A cluster sampling wherein geographical
areas are used as clusters is known as area
sampling.

Multistage sampling

Definition
In a multi stage sampling mechanism in which sampling
procedures are carried on in several stages using random
sampling techniques. This technique is recommendable for large
country surveys.
Mechanism
Suppose we are handling a stage wise survey of status of eye
defective patients:
Let us consider the 75 districts of Nepal.
1st stage: Select 40 districts of Nepal SRS technique.
2nd stage: Select 20 VDC/ Nagar Palika from the selected 40
districts by SRS technique.
3rd stage : Select 80 households out of 20 VDC/ Nagar Palika by
SRS technique.
4th stage : Finally enumerate all eye defective patients in the
selected households. This is a four stage sampling.

Types of errors in Data Collection

Sampling Error
Non sampling Error

Non sampling Error

Inaccurate reporting by the
respondent
Actual lying by respondents
Poor Sampling Design
Misintrepretation of question due to
ambiguous wording
Hesitant Respondent
Coding and Editing Errors

Sampling Error
Error incurred by selection of sample that
are not representative of the population
Sources of Sampling Errors
-Faulty selection of sample
-Substitution
-Faulty Demarcation of Sampling Units
-Constant error due to improper choice of
the statist tics for Estimating population
parameter

Advantages of Sampling over

Census

Less time
Reduced cost of survey
Greater accuracy of results
Greater scope
If the population is too large or
If the test is destructive or
If the population is hypothetical then only
possible method of data collection is
sampling

 Interview
It is a technique of primary data collection. It is an oral method in which one
person asks another person questions designed to obtain answer pertinent to
the Research problem. It is most commonly used direct method in the study
of human behavior. The interview is a face to face interpersonal role situation
in which one person asks another person being interviewed. The respondent
question designed to obtain answer pertinent to the purpose of the Research
problem. The interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which
one person enters more or less imaginatively with the inner life of another
who is
generally a comparative stranger to him. The purpose of interview is to find
out whats in or on someone elses mind.
According to Kerlinger The interview is a face to face interpersonal
role situation in which one person, the interviewer, asks a person
being interviewed, the respondent, questions designed to obtain
answers pertinent to the purpose of the Research problem.

 Types of interview
Structured or standardized interview
It this interview, the questions, their sequence and their wordings are fixed. The
same question is asked to everybody in the same manner. in general, the
interviewer doesnt have flexibility to change the question, their format or order.
Sometimes an interviewer may be allowed some liberty in asking question but
relatively little. That liberty is specified in advance. Standardized interviews are
interview schedule that have been carefully prepared to obtained information
pertinent to the Research problem.
Unstructured or unstandardized interview
In the interview, the sequence and wording of question are not fixed. The
interviewer doesnt follow pre-planed list of the question. The interviewer writes
the response
of the interview during the interview or after interview is completed. It is more
flexible and open. Ordinary no schedule is used. They dont mean that
unstructured interview is casual. The interviewer will have a tentative list of
question to be covered during the interview.

 Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a format list of questions designed to gather respondent from
respondent on a given topic. It is a formalized schedule for data collection. It is
used when fractional information is designed. When opinion rather than facts are
desired, opinionnaire or attitude scale is used. Questionnaire is a term used for
almost any kind of instrument that has questions or items to which individuals
respond. A questionnaire is a list of questions to number of persons for them to
answer. It secures standardized results that can be tabulated created statistically.
Type of questionnaire
Open or open-ended question:
Close or close-ended question:
restricted questionnaire
Types of close- questionnaire
Dichotomous questionnaire:
It offers only two alternatives; positive and negative. The response would be yes or
no; agree or disagree; and so on. It is also known as two way questionnaire.
Multi chotomous questionnaire:
It is also called multiple choice questionnaires.

 Questionnaire Design
A questionnaire is designed to collect right type of primary data of right quality. The design of questionnaire is
more than art from than a scientific undertaking. Questionnaire design comes from the experience of the
Researchers who specialized in this area. The only way to develop this skill is to write a questionnaire, use it in a
series of interviews, analyze its weakness and revise it. There are no series of step, principle or guidelines with
guarantee on effective and efficient questionnaire. An effective questionnaire is one that
Draws out accurate information
Cab be completed easily by interviewers
Flow well
Leaves the respondent feel satisfied for their worth while participation in the Research
There are series of seven steps in questionnaire design as
started below:
It is versatile. Almost every problem of social Research can be approached from the questionnaire stand point.
Every social problem involves people. Therefore, ideas relative to the problem and solution can be obtained by
asking these people about the problem
Many people can be studied only by questioning. Knowledge, opinions, motivation, and intentions are usually
not open to observation. Similarly, it is not feasible to observe personnel activities such as burning teeth. So, it is
feasible.
Questioning is usually faster and efficient than observation. Some events that take place over a time period
would require lengthy observation, but a question on this behavior can be answered in a few seconds.
It is cheaper then observing. The Researcher has not to stand time to observe the behavior of the respondent.
A decrease in time usually lead to decrease in cost.
The person administrating the questionnaire has an opportunity to establish report, explain the purpose of the
study and explain the meaning of items that may not be clear.

 Disadvantages of questionnaire
Respondents would be unwilling to provide information. Questions about
income or very personnel subject frequently meet refusal by respondent. The
show little or no interest to the question.
Despite a willingness to cooperate, many people are unable to give accurate
information of questions.
There can be influence on questioning process. Often respondent attempt to
give answers that they think will please the Researchers.
Filling out lengthy questions take a great deal of time and money.
Other disadvantages
It cannot be used in illiterate person.
Incomplete responses are possible
There is a possibility of wrong answer
Useless in depth problem
Uniform questions are not applicable to other people of different ethnicity,
culture etc.

 Observation
It is a method of gathering primary data physically or
mechanically recording events or aspect of the phenomenon
under investigation. It involves recording of the respondents
behavior. It is the process of recognizing noting people, objects
and occurrence of events rather than asking for information. It can
supplement the information collected through
questionnaire and interview. Observation is the process of
recognizing and recording
behavior of people, objects and events. Observation is systematic
and deliberate study through eye, of spontaneous occurrence at
the time they occur. Example: instead of asking consumer what
brand they buy or what television program they watch, the
Researcher arrange to observe what product are brought and what
program they watch.

 Characteristics of good observations

Observation should be carefully planned, systematic and perceptive.
Observers should know what they are looking for and what is irrelevant in a
situation.
It should focus on wholeness of what is observed.
Observers should not only be alert to significant details, they should also
know that the whole is often greater than the sum of its parts.
It should be objective and bias-free. Observers should strive to eliminate
their influence what see and report.
It should separate the facts from the interpretation of facts. Observers
observe the facts and make their interpretation at a later time.
It should be checked and verified whenever possible by repetition or by
comparison with those of other competent observers.
It should be carefully and expertly recorded. Observers use appropriate
instruments to systematize, qualify and preserve the result of their
observations.
Observations are collected in such a way that they are valid and reliable.

Determionation of Sample Size

-Sample Size for Estimating
Population Mean on the base of
sample mean
-Sample size for estimating Polulation
proportion on the basis of Sample
proportion

Sample size to determine

population mean
Necessary information
Z value (Either given or to be
determined by yourself)
Sample variance or Population
variance
Margin of Error(D or E)
Then use formular

Sample size to determine Population

variance
Necessary information
Z value (Either given or to be
determined by yourself)
Sample variance or Population
variance for propoertion(p and q)
Margin of Error(D or E)
Then use formulae

Sample Size
Too Big:
Requires
too much
resource
s

Too
small:
Wont
do the
job

Example: Sample
Size
for Mean
What sample size is needed to be 90%
confident of being correct within 5?
A pilot study suggested that the
standard deviation is 45

Z
1.645 45
n

219.2 220
2
2
Error
5
2

Round Up

Example: Sample
Size
for Proportion
What sample size is needed to be within
5 with 90% confidence? Out of a
population of 1,000, we randomly
selected 100 of which 30 were defective

Z p 1 p 1.645 0.3 0.7

n

2
2
Error
0.05
227.3 228
Round
2

 A manufacturing concern wants to

estimate the average amount of
purchase of its product in a month by
customers. The standard deviation of
purchases is Rs.100.Find the sample
size if the maximum error is not to
exceed Rs.3 with a probability of
0.95(z=1.96)

 The bajaj manufacturing sells a tube

light that has mean life of 4350 hours
with a standard deviation of 50
hours.A new manufacturing process
is being tested and there is interest
in knowing the mean life of of the
new tube lights. How large the
sample size is required so that x 5
is a 95%confidence interval for ?
You may assume that the change in