Respiratory System

Consists of the respiratory and conducting zones

Respiratory zone:

Site of gas exchange

respiratory bronchioles (just before alveolar

ducts)

alveolar ducts

alveolar sacs

alveoli

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Respiratory System:

Conducting zone:

Conduits for air to reach respiratory zone

nose, nasal cavity

pharynx, trachea

rt, left primary bronchus

secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi

bronchioles, to terminal bronchiols)

Respiratory muscles diaphragm, internal &

external intercostals

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Respiratory System

Respiratory bronchioles,
alveolar ducts, alveolar
sacs, alveoli
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Figure 22.1

Major Functions of the Respiratory System

Supply oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide

Respiration/ventilation 4 processes must happen

1. Pulmonary ventilation air moves in/out of lungs
2. External respiration O2 in CO2 out; blood/lungs
3. Transport- gas transport between lungs & tissues
4. Internal respiration- O2 out CO2 in; blood/tissues

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Conducting zone: Function/Structure of the Nose

Functions:

Airway for respiration

Moistens, warms, filters air

Olfactory receptors

Structure:

Nasal bone

Cartilage plates with dividing septum

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Structure of the Nose

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Figure 22.2a

Structure of the Nose

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Figure 22.2b

Conducting zone: Nasal Cavity

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Figure 22.3b

Paranasal Sinuses

Sinuses in bones that surround the nasal cavity

Sinuses lighten the skull and help to warm and

moisten the air

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Conducting zone: Pharynx

Tube of skeletal muscle between nasal cavity &

esophagus (C6); 3 parts:
1. Nasopharynx air passageway; closes during
swallowing; pharyngeal tonsils; auditory tube
2. Oropharynx- food & air passageway; palatine &
lingual tonsils
3. Laryngopharynx- food & air passageway;
posterior to epiglottis, superior to esophagus

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Conducting zone: Larynx (Voice Box)

Attaches to hyoid bone; between laryngopharynx

& trachea

Continuous with the trachea posteriorly

Functions:
1. To provide a patent airway
2. Route air and food into the proper channels;
epiglottis
3. Voice production

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Framework of the Larynx

Elastic
cartilage

hyaline

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Figure 22.4a, b

Movements of Vocal Cords

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Figure 22.5

Sphincter Functions of the Larynx

The larynx is closed during coughing, sneezing, and

Valsalvas maneuver

Valsalvas maneuver

Air is temporarily held in the lower respiratory tract

by closing the glottis

Causes intra-abdominal pressure to rise when

abdominal muscles contract

Helps to empty the rectum

Acts as a splint to stabilize the trunk when lifting

heavy loads

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Conducting zone: Trachea

Smoking destroys
cilia

Cartilage rings
open posteriorly
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Figure 22.6a

Conducting Zone: Bronchi

Carina- tracheal cartilage @ end of trachea,

beginning of bronchi

Air reaching the bronchi is:

Warm and cleansed of impurities

Saturated with water vapor

Bronchi subdivide into secondary bronchi, each

supplying a lobe of the lungs

Air passages undergo 23 orders of branching

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Conducting Zone: Bronchial Tree

Tissue walls of bronchi mimic that of the trachea

As conducting tubes become smaller, structural

changes occur
1. Cartilage rings become plates
2. Epithelium from pseudostratified ciliated
columnar to columnar
3. Amount of smooth muscle increases

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Conducting Zones: Bronchial Tree

(thru terminal bronchiols)

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Figure 22.7

Respiratory Zone

Alveoli- most of the lungs volume

Provide tremendous surface area for gas
exchange
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Figure 22.8a

Respiratory Zone
Pores: Allow air
pressure throughout the
lung to be equalized

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Figure 22.8b

Respiratory Membrane

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Figure 22.9b

Respiratory Membrane

This air-blood barrier is composed of:

Alveolar and capillary walls

Their fused basal laminas

Alveolar walls:

Are a single layer of type I epithelial cells

Permit gas exchange by simple diffusion

Secrete angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)

Type II cells secrete surfactant

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Respiratory Membrane: air-blood barrier

**************

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Figure 22.9c ,d

Organs in the Thoracic Cavity

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Figure 22.10a

Transverse Thoracic Section

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Figure 22.10c

Blood Supply to Lungs: Pulmonary & Bronchial

1. Pulmonary circulation
Pulmonary arteries to lungs for oxygen
Feed into pulmonary capillaries around alveoli
Pulmonary veins oxygenated blood from respiratory
zones to the heart
2. Bronchial circulation
From aorta, enter at hilus
Supply all lung tissue except alveoli
Bronchial veins anastomose with pulmonary veins
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Pleurae: double- layered

Parietal pleura

Covers thoracic wall, superior diaphragm

Continues around heart and between lungs

Visceral, or pulmonary, pleura

Covers the external lung surface

Divides the thoracic cavity into three chambers

The central mediastinum

Two lateral compartments, each containing a lung

Pleurisy

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Breathing

Breathing, or pulmonary ventilation, consists of

two phases

Inspiration air flows into the lungs

Expiration gases exit the lungs

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Pressure Relationships in the Thoracic Cavity

Respiratory pressure as relative to atmospheric

pressure

Atmospheric pressure (Patm) = 760 mm Hg

Pressure exerted by the air surrounding the body

Negative respiratory pressure < Patm;

-4mm = 756 mm Hg

Positive respiratory pressure > Patm

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Pressure Relationships in the Thoracic Cavity

Intrapulmonary pressure (Ppul) pressure within the

alveoli

Intrapleural pressure (Pip) pressure within the

pleural cavity

Both fluctuate with inspiration & expiration

Ppul equalizes itself with atmospheric pressure

Pip < Ppul and < Patm

Transpulmonary pressure: Ppul minus Pip

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Intrapulmonary & Intrapleural Pressure Relationships

> Transpulmonary
pressure, > lung inflation

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Figure 22.12

Pressure Relationships

Two forces act to pull the lungs away from the

thoracic wall, promoting lung collapse
1. Elasticity of lungs causes them to assume smallest
possible size; recoil
2. Surface tension of alveolar fluid draws alveoli to
their smallest possible size

Opposing force elasticity of the chest wall

pulls the thorax outward to enlarge the lungs

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Boyles Law

Boyles law the relationship between the pressure

and volume of gases
P1V1 = P2V2

P = pressure of a gas in mm Hg

V = volume of a gas in cubic millimeters

Subscripts 1 and 2 represent the initial and

resulting conditions, respectively

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Inspiration

The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles

(inspiratory muscles) contract and the rib cage rises

The lungs are stretched and intrapulmonary

volume increases

Intrapulmonary pressure drops below

atmospheric pressure (1 mm Hg)

Air flows into the lungs, down its pressure

gradient, until intrapleural pressure = atmospheric
pressure

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Inspiration

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Figure 22.13.1

Expiration

Inspiratory muscles relax and the rib cage descends

due to gravity

Thoracic cavity volume decreases

Elastic lungs recoil passively and intrapulmonary

volume decreases

Intrapulmonary pressure rises above

atmospheric pressure (+1 mm Hg)

Gases flow out of the lungs down the pressure

gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0

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Expiration

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Figure 22.13.2

Pulmonary Pressures: Inspiration/Expiration

Always maintains
transpulmonary
pressure
Lungs expand,
pressure drops

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Lungs deflate, pressure

increases

Figure 22.14

Lung Collapse

Caused by equalization of the intrapleural pressure

with the intrapulmonary pressure

Transpulmonary pressure keeps the airways open

Transpulmonary pressure difference between the

intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures
(Ppul Pip)

Atelectasis collapsed lung

Pneumothorax (tension) - air
in intrapleural space
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Pulmonary Ventilation

A mechanical process that depends on volume

changes in the thoracic cavity

Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which

lead to the flow of gases to equalize pressure

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Physical Factors Influencing Ventilation:

Airway Resistance

Friction is the major nonelastic source of resistance

to airflow

The relationship between flow (F), pressure (P),

and resistance (R) is:

P
F=
R

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pressure gradient: atmosphere/alveoli

> est R in medium-sized bronchi

Resistance in Repiratory Passageways

> branches, >

cross- sectional
area here

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Figure 22.15

Airway Resistance Life Threatening

> resistance, > effort to breathe

Constricted or obstructed bronchioles from:

Reflex RXN to inhaled irritants/particles by

parasympathetic nervous system

Acute asthma attacks, histamine release, actions

Epinephrine

Sympathetic nervous system release; dilates

bronchioles and reduces air resistance

RX for asthma attacks

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Total Respiratory System Compliance

Two factors:
1.

Lung compliance

2.

Thoracic wall compliance

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Lung Compliance

Change in lung volume that occurs with a given

change in transpulmonary pressure (stretchiness)

Determined by two main factors

1. Distensibility of the lung tissue (stretchiness,
elasticity)
2. Surface tension of the alveoli

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Factors That Diminish Lung Compliance- elasticity

Scar tissue or fibrosis of the lungs; untreated

subacute asthma

Blockage of smaller respiratory passages by mucus

or fluid

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Factors that decrease Thoracic Wall Compliance

Decreased flexibility of the thoracic cage or its

decreased ability to expand

Deformities of thorax

Ossification of the costal cartilage

Paralysis of intercostal muscles

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Factors That Diminish Lung Compliance- Alveolar

Surface Tension

Surface tension cohesion of water molecules

On alveoli, water molecules would stick to each

other & shrink alveoli

Surfactant, a detergent-like complex, reduces

surface tension and helps keep the alveoli from
collapsing

Surfactant production develops in last 2 months of

gestation, premature infants suffer from < amts;
can survive at 28 wks

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