1

Overview
In this chapter, the Fourier series is extended to
cover no-repeating signals.
The concept of the Fourier transform: a
function that converts a signal from time
domain to frequency domain is introduced.
The inverse transform, which converts from
frequency to time domain is also introduced.
Properties of the transform are covered.
Finally, a comparison between the Laplace and
Fourier transforms will be made.
2

Non Periodic Functions

We have seen how Fourier series can
represent any periodic waveform.
But, many signals of interest in
electronics are not periodic.
Although these cannot be represented in
a Fourier series, they can be transformed
into frequency domain by use of
something called the Fourier transform.

Stretching the Period

One way to consider a nonperiodic function is to take a
periodic one and stretch the
period.
Consider the periodic function
shown at the bottom of the
figure.
If the period T, then the
function becomes non-periodic.

Effect on the Spectrum

Here you can see the
impact of increasing
the period has.
As the pulses are
spaced out more, the
peaks in the frequency
spectrum get closer
together
The amplitude also
drops.
5

Effect on the Spectrum II

Note that the sum of the amplitudes does not
change.
Ultimately what will happen is as the period
goes to infinity, the discrete spectrum will
become a continuous spectrum.
The result is what is known as the Fourier
transform
F F f t

f t e jt dt

Inverse Fourier
The Fourier transform is an integral
transform of f(t) from the time domain to the
frequency domain.
In general, F() is a complex function.
Its magnitude is called the amplitude
spectrum.
The phase is called the phase spectrum.
There is also a inverse transform:
f t F

F e jt d

Conditions on F()
The Fourier transform does not exist for all
functions.
It only exists where the Fourier integral
converges.
A sufficient, but not necessary condition is:

f t dt

An example of a function that would fail this

test is the unit ramp function.
8

 Example 18.2
Example 18.3

Linearity of F()
We will now establish some of properties of
the Fourier transform
Linearity: If F1() and F2() are the Fourier
transforms of f1(t) and f2(t) then
F a1 f1 t a2 f 2 t a1 F1 a2 F2

Where a1 and a2 are constants.

This simply states that the transform of a
linear combination of functions equals the
linear combination of each transform.
10

Time Scaling
In time scaling:
1
F f at F
a a

This shows that time expansion (|a|>1)

corresponds to frequency compression and
vice versa.
In other words, imagine a pulse that
becomes shorter; the Fourier transform of
this broadens in frequency.
11

Time Scaling II
The effect of time scaling can be seen in this
example:

12

Frequency Shifting
In frequency shifting:
F f t e j0 t F 0

A frequency shift in the frequency domain

adds a phase shift to the time function.
This can also be seen as amplitude
modulation in the time domain.
This has important consequences for
modulation, a common form of
communication.
13

Time Differentiation
In time differentiation:
F f t j F

The transform of the derivative of f (t) is

obtained by multiplying the transform of f (t)
by j.
This can be generalized to the nth
derivative:
n
n

F f t j F

14

Time Integration
In time integration:

F
f t dt
F 0
j

the transform of the integral of f (t) is obtained

by dividing the transform of f (t) by j and
adding the result to the impulse term that
reflects the dc component F(0).
Note that the upper bound of the integral is t.
If it were not, the Fourier transform would be of
a constant.
15

Reversal
In reversal:
F f t F F *

This property states that reversing f (t) about

the time axis reverses F() about the
frequency axis.
This can be considered a special case of
time scaling if a=-1.

16

Duality and Convolution

Duality states
F f t F

F F t 2 f

This expresses the symmetry property of the

Fourier transform.
Convolution states:
Y F h t * x t H X

An example of how this works is shown

below:

17

Convolution
Here is a graphical representation of
convolution:

18

Fourier Transform Pairs

19

More Fourier Transform Pairs

20

 Example 18.4
Example 18.5
Example 18.6

21

Circuit Applications
We can apply Fourier transforms to circuits with
non-sinusoidal excitations in exactly the same way
we apply phasor techniques to circuits with
sinusoidal excitations.
Thus, Ohms law is still valid:
V Z I
We get the same expressions for impedances as in
phasor analysis
R
L
C

R
j L
1
jC
22

Circuit Applications II
Once transformed to frequency domain and
the transform of the excitations are taken,
the analysis of the circuit can proceed as has
been done previously.
Note, though, that Fourier transforms cant
handle initial conditions.
The transfer function again defined as.
H

23

 Example 18.7
Example 18.8

24

Parsevals Theorem
Parsevals theorem relates the energy carried
by a signal to the Fourier transform of the
signal.
If p(t) is the power associated with the signal,
the energy carried is:
W

p t dt

For convenience, we can make a comparison

to the energy content of a voltage or current
passing through a 1 load.
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Parsevals Theorem II
The energy delivered to the resistor is:
Eq 18.58

Parsevals theorem states that the total

energy delivered to a 1 resistor equals the
total area under the square of f (t) or 1/2
times the total area under the square of the
magnitude of the Fourier transform of f(t).
Eq 18.59

26

Parsevals Theorem III

Alternatively, one can integrate from zero to
infinity since |F()|2 is an even function:
W1

1
f t dt

F d
2

It is also possible to calculate the energy in

any frequency band:
1
W1

F d
2

27

Fourier vs. Laplace

Let us compare the Fourier transform with
the Laplace transform:
1. The Laplace transform is one-sided in that
the integral is over 0<t< making it only
useful for positive time functions, f (t), t>0
The Fourier transform is applicable to
functions defined for all time.

28

Fourier vs. Laplace II

2. For a function that is nonzero for positive time
only, the two transforms are related by:
F F s

s j

This equation also shows that the Fourier

transform can be regarded as a special case of
the Laplace transform with s= j
Recall that s= + j Therefore, this equation
shows that the Laplace transform is related to
the entire s plane, whereas the Fourier transform
is restricted to the j axis.
29

Fourier vs. Laplace III

3. The Laplace transform is applicable to a
wider range of functions than the Fourier
transform.
For example, the function tu(t) has a Laplace
transform but no Fourier transform. But Fourier
transforms exist for signals that are not physically
realizable and have no Laplace transforms.

4. The Laplace transform is better suited for

the analysis of transient problems involving
initial conditions, since it permits the
inclusion of the initial conditions, whereas
the Fourier transform does not.
30

Application
Transmitting information by electromagnetic
radiation is a central part of much of our
technology now.
However, most information we wish to
transmit is low frequency: between 50Hz to
20kHz.
These frequencies do not travel well through
space, without using a large amount of
power.

31

AM
One way around this is to use a higher
frequency wave and modulate either the
amplitude, frequency, or phase with the
information to be transmitted.
The high frequency wave is called the carrier.
Here, we will look at amplitude modulation,
known as AM for short.
Suppose we have a signal m(t) to transmit on
a carrier wave that is a sine wave at frequency
c.
32

AM II
For simplicity, let us assume the signal is also a
sine wave of frequency m.
The modulated carrier wave is:
f t Vc 1 m t cos c t

Taking the Fourier transform of that yields.

V
F Vc c c c M c M c
2

From this we see that the signal consists of the

carrier frequency and two side bands offset
from the carrier frequency by the signal
frequency m.
33

Sidebands

34