Plastic Deformation: deformation is not recovered upon

removal of load

Low temperature
plasticity

Engineering
stress

Both low temperature plasticity and high

temperature creep are forms of plastic
deformation.

High temperature
creep

strain

strain

time

Mechanical Test Configurations (M&C 3.1)

a) tension test: relatively
easy; strength in tension;
necking (tensile instability)

e) plane strain compression

(ford test). Friction important.

b) compression test:
relatively easy; brittle
materials; simulate
forging (upset test);
barreling due to friction.
c) 3-point bending:
specimen fabrication
easy, severe conditions
d) plane strain tension:
simulate metal forming
operations; plane strain
severe test of ductility.

f) torsion: large strains (non-uniform along radius). Torsion of

tubes good way for multiaxial
loading & plane stress

d) plane
stress
tension:
sheets

Yield Stress Criteria: Beginning of plastic flow

Yield strength,
0.5% total strain
0.2% offset
Offset steel and
aluminum alloys
total strain
copper alloys
set strength
springs

2% set strength
Proportional limit
Elastic limit
(some irreversible
strain)

Proportional & elastic limits

not used that much (difficult to
quantify & apply)

E
1.02

E
1

0.002

strain

0.005

Deformation at large strains:

Engineering Strain & Stress

Hardness, H / yield stress, Y (8% strain)

CONVERSION OF
MEYER HARDNESS
TO YIELD STRESS

ceramics

metals

polymers

Ratio of Meyer hardness to yield stress as a function of ratio of

modulus to yield stress. From Johnsons book, Contact Mechanics.
Y Yield stress after 8% strain
E * E /(1 2 ); 19.7 (angle between indenter & specimen surface)

Engineering strain

l
l0

l l 0 l
E

l0
l0

E 12

compression and tension not

symmetric unless strains are small
engineering strains dont add
unless they are small
l2 l1 l3 l2

Ec Ea Eb
l1
l2
a
E

b
E

l/ 2

2l

E 1
a
E

b
E

l1 l2 l3

c
E

Engineering stress
l0

P
l

engineering stresses dont

take into account change in
area
material responds to actual
(true) stress, taking into
account change in area

P P( E )

P( E )
E
A0

Deformation at large strains:

True Strain & Stress

true strain

lf
l0
lf

lf
dl
t ln
l
l0
l0

l/ 2

2l

t ln 2 t ln 2
compression and tension symmetric
b
true strains add
a
t t
instantaneous strain rate:

t l / l

l2
l3
ln ln tc
l1
l2
a
t

b
t

l1 l2 l3
tc

True stress
l0

P
l

true stresses take into account

change in area
material responds true stress

P
t
A

True Stress, Strain - Engineering Stress,

Strain Conversions and Formulae
ASSUME CONSTANT VOLUME,
HOMOGENOUS DEFORMATION:

A0 l0 A l

P P l
t
t
E 1 E E e
A A0 l0
l
t
t ln ln1 E ; E e 1
l0
l0
d ln A
t
A A0 A0 e ;
1
l
d t

Testing Machine & specimen

load cell
universal
joint
Load
frame

Load train

grip
fillet

grip

gage section

grip

specimen
grip
universal
joint
crosshead

Load train

Clip-on
extensometer

x , L
MACHINE

SPECIMEN

KM
EA
KS
l
Inelastic
properties of
specimen

Testing Machine
& specimen
e
i
x (schematic)
x M x S x S
x M L CM
l
x L CS L
AE
i
x S inelastic
deformation
e
S

Engineering Stress (ksi)

100

Al 2024 T351
Strain based on crosshead

80

60

1
1
A
CM
Eeff E
l

40

20

Machine stiffness changes with load

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

Engineering strain

0.25

0.30

Engineering Stress (ksi)

100

Al 2024 T351
Strain based on extensometer

80

60

40

20

0.00

0.05

0.10

Engineering strain

0.15

0.20

Parameters from the stress-strain curve

Without yield point

With yield point

M&C Fig. 3.7

E: Rupture stress*
* sensitive to
specimen
F: Uniform strain
A: Yield stress (offset)
geometry, machine
G: Strain-to-failure* stiffness
B: Upper yield point
H: Lders strain
C: Lower yield point*
D: Yield stress (proportional) Area under curve:* Work of
fracture, Toughness (not same
D: Ultimate tensile Strength as Fracture Toughness)

Important Point
Many of the parameters measured depend
not only upon material properties, but also
upon the type of test and properties of the
testing machine.
UTS
Strain-to-failure
Work of fracture

Tensile Instability I: UTS

UTS

AT UTS:

Engineering
stress
(Load, P)
strain

dP
d
0
( t A )
d t
d t

d ln t
d ln A

1
d t
d t

 0 before UTS
1 dP
0 at UTS
P d t
0 after UTS
1 dP d ln t d ln A

P d t
d t
d t

Work
hardening
outstrips
geometric
softening

Geometric
softening
outstrips
work
hardening

Work Hardening

Geometric softening (= -1)

Before UTS: Work Hardening > Geometric Softening

At UTS:
Work Hardening = Geometric Softening
After UTS: Work Hardening < Geometric Softening

UTS causes necking

A = cross-sectional area

A
A-A
Incipient neck:
does it intensify?
Necking: unstable deformation,
localized to one segment of
specimen.

Before
UTS

After
UTS

Before UTS, region with crosssectional area A-A can always

workharden to support same load as
region with area A.
After UTS, region with cross-sectional
area A-A can not workharden
sufficiently to support same load as
region with area A, because of
geometric softening.

Uniform Strain
d ln t
1
d t

Uniform strain

t K t

n0.25 typically

d ln t
1
d t

t n at UTS

Fracture instability
1
UTS
x
Engineering
stress
(or Load, P)

stable
unstable

strain

K = effective
machine and
specimen
stiffness

Idealized behavior
a) rigid perfectly plastic
b) elastic perfectly plastic
c) bilinear hardening
d) parabolic hardening,
with and without offset
Ludwick-Holloman Equations:

t K t
n
t 0 K t
n m
t K'
n