Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 1
Introduction to Speech,
Language, and Communication
What Is Communication?
Interchange of ideas, feelings, thoughts,
experiences, and information
Communicating through language
Speechthe oral sounds of the
language code
Rationalism
Empiricism
Naturenurture continuum
Social-interactionist model
Language Form
Phonology
44 phonemes in English
Vowels: sounds produced with an open vocal tract
Consonants: sounds produced through place of
articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing
10
11
Language Content
Language content: the meaning level
of language
Also called semantics
How humans attribute meaning
(includes study of vocabulary
development in children)
12
Language Use
Language use: the conventions governing
how language is used in various social
contexts
Rules a culture uses for what people say, to
whom, how, and under which circumstances
Often called pragmatics: analysis of the
functions of language, particularly those
related to social contexts
Significance of violations of the rules
13
Narrative Ability
Narrative: a sequence of events tied
together in a story
Major precursor to learning to read
and write
Story grammar: character(s), setting,
and episodes
Cultural variations: topic centered or
topic associated
14
Nonverbal Language
Paralinguistics
Proxemics
Kinesics
Chronemics
15
Chapter 2
Language Development from Infancy
through Adolescence
17
18
Emerging Language
Browns Stage I, MLU between 1.0
and 2.0
Semantics and increasing vocabulary
Syntax: from one-word utterances to
two-word phrases
Noun phrases and verb phrases
Development of the interrogative and
negative forms
19
Phonology
Variability in the development of
phonological abilities: phonetically
consistent forms
First phonemes to emerge
Simplification of adult forms of
phonology: phonological processes
20
21
Developing Language
Between ages 27 months and 46 months
in typically developing children (Browns
Stage II through V, MLU of 2.0 to 4.5)
Semantics: exponential vocabulary
development
nouns, verbs, prepositions, temporal
words, adjectives, and pronouns
emergence of inflections to change word
meanings
22
Semantics, continued
regular and irregular verb forms
contractions
beginnings of pronoun acquisition
23
Syntax
From two-word utterances to sentences
containing adjectives, prepositional
phrases, and subordinate clauses
development of interrogatives and negatives
increasing complexity of sentence forms
through embedding
(1) embedding phrases within sentences
(2) embedding clauses within clauses
24
Syntax, continued
Compound and complex sentences
Object complement clauses, whquestion clauses, and relative
clauses
25
Morphology
Plural marker: one of the earliest
morphemes children use regularly
Overgeneralization of morphemic
rules
Learning exceptions to morphemic
rules
26
Phonology
Children acquire most of the
phonological system during this
stage
Many children use later developing
phonemes incorrectly well into the
next stage
27
Pragmatics
Turntaking and topic maintenance
improve
Increased ability with conversational
repair
Moving from a preponderance of
direct requests to an increased use of
indirect requests
28
Figurative Language
Emerging understanding that
language exists on several levels
Increased understanding of
synonyms and homonyms
Beginning understanding and use of
metaphoric language
Idioms
Humor
29
Narrative Development
Protonarratives and heaps give way
to primitive narratives
Four types of narratives children use
in this stage:
Recounting
Eventcasts
Accounts
Fictionalized narratives
30
31
32
Semantic Development
Characteristics of vocabulary
development in this stage
Addition of new words
Using words they already know in new
ways
Choosing words for getting just the right
meaning
Chunking: classifying words into
categories and hierarchical subcategories33
Semantic Development,
continued
Elaborated definitions of words
Differentiation of nouns into
subcategories
Appearance of adverbs
Fine tuning the pronouns
34
Figurative Language
Nonliteral use of language:
Metaphor
Simile
Idiom
Proverbs, adages, maxims
Syntactic Development
Expanding noun and verb phrases
Passive sentences: reversible and
nonreversible
Exceptions to the rules
Principle of minimal distance and
exceptions/violations
36
Syntactic Development,
continued
Embedding
Infinitive phrases
Object complements
Relative clauses that modify noun phrases in
the object position (but not in the subject
position)
Decreasing difficulty with confusing
embeddings
37
Syntactic Development,
continued
Conjoining
Learning exceptions to logical (causeeffect)
order
38
Morphological Development
Three significant morphological
advances: producing
Gerunds
Agentive forms
Adverb forms
39
Pragmatic Development
Moving toward the literate end of the oral
literate continuum
Discourse: different ways to talk, act, and
write in different circumstances
Discourse genres
Conversational competence
Increased ability to sustain topics over time
Improved skill in responding to clarifications
for repair
40
Pragmatic Development,
continued
Proficiency in understanding and using
indirect requests
Pragmatic Development,
continued
Six narrative genres children are likely
to encounter
Structured play
Wordless books
Comic books
Books on video/DVD/online
Folk tales
Trade books
42
Narrative Development
Shift in narrative abilities during this stage
Stories containing a basic episode give way to
stories that contain complete episodes
Basic episode: initiating event, attempt,
consequence
Complete episode: basic episode plus internal
response, plan, and reaction or ending
Narrative Development,
continued
After age 8, childrens stories begin to
resemble adults stories:
Clear plot line
Problem is obvious
Enough (not too much) information/detail
Time and place described in enough detail
Characters actions and motivations make
sense
44
Expository Discourse
Highly decontextualized language
Structures are different from story grammar
Nested organizational schemes may be more
difficult for students until late in this stage
45
The Metas
Metalinguistic
Metapragmatic
Metacognitive
47
Metalinguistic ability
Most children develop some
proficiency with the various
metalinguistic forms; some are
considerably older
Consequences for learning to
read
Difficulties with phonological
awareness
Metapragmatic ability
Metapragmatic strategies
Decoding classroom
discourse
Metacognitive ability
Comprehension monitoring
Organizational and learning
strategies
50
Writing
Graphophoneme awareness
Importance of oral language
development and emerging reading
skills
51
Adolescent Language/
Advanced Language
Primary developments in this stage
Social interactions with peers
Necessity of understanding and
producing literate language forms
Using language to develop critical
thinking skills
52
Semantics
Vocabulary
Enlarging number and types of words
Elaborating vocabulary that reflects
literate language forms
Further expanding the meanings of
already known words
Learning Aristotelian definitions
53
Pragmatics
Most prominent developments are:
increased abilities with figurative language
forms
Understanding and producing diverse
discourse types
Figurative language
Improved comprehension of metaphor,
similes, and idioms
Playing with language for humorous effects
54
Pragmatics, continued
The importance of slang for teenagers
Increased emphasis on understanding and
using all the discourses presented by school
Narrative
Expository
Argumentative
Persuasive
55
The Metas
Increased demand for metacognitive
skills
Emergence of:
Analogic/inductive reasoning
Syllogistic/deductive reasoning
57
Writing
Reading and writing as reciprocal processes
Increased proficiency with writing mechanics
and different literary styles
Three major processes of writing in
adolescence
Planning
Sentence generation
Revision
59
Chapter 3
Cultural Diversity and Language
Differences
Disproportionality in Special
Education
What is disproportionality?
Overrepresentation
Underrepresentation
65
69
70
71
72
Fair Assessment
The challenge of finding fair,
accurate assessment instruments
and procedures
Content bias
Construct bias
Four Instructional
Approaches
1. English as a Second Language Approach
English is the language of instruction
Students native language not addressed
directly
Advantages and disadvantages
75
Bilingual Education
Materials
Few Spanish-language materials are
available
Steps to use in selecting appropriate
materials for students from diverse
backgrounds
78
79
80
Chapter 4
Language Assessment and Instruction
for Preschool Children
82
83
Standardized Testing
Standardized instruments are norm
referenced
Characteristics of norm-referenced
instruments
Strengths and weaknesses of
standardized instruments
85
Nonstandardized
Approaches
Criterion-referenced procedures
Developmental scales
Dynamic assessment
86
88
Assessment of Preschool
Children
Purpose of assessment for children in
the
Prelinguistic period of language
development
Emerging language stage
Developing language stage
89
90
92
94
95
97
Instructional methods
Teacher directed
Child centered
Combinations of both of the above
Instructional settings
Collaborating with a Speech-Language
Pathologist (SLP)
Consulting with an SLP
Language-based classroom
98
99
Chapter 5
Language Assessment and Instruction
for School-Age Children
102
Standardized measures
103
104
Semantics
Receptive and expressive vocabulary differences
Instructional and textbook vocabulary
Word retrieval and/or word finding
Noun differentiationcategorization
105
Assessing Narrative
Discourse
Applebys stage model
Heap stories
Sequence stories
Primitive narratives
Chain narratives
True narratives
107
Complexity of ideas
Complexity of vocabulary
Knowledge of dialogue
Creativity
108
109
Assessing Nonnarrative
Discourse Genres
Classroom discourse
The hidden curriculum
Decontextualized nature of classroom discourse
110
111
Pragmatics
How difficulties with metapragmatic
skills manifests in the social
interactive rules governing the
various discourse genres typical of
school
Difficulties students with LLD may
exhibit
112
Language Instruction
for School-Age Students
Linking language instruction to state
learning standards via the IEP
How Section 504 can help students
with language disabilities
113
Language Goals
Two primary goals for language
instruction during the language for
learning (L4L) period
Developing facility with the language
structures, forms, and functions typical
of the language in this developmental
stage
Making the shift from oral to literate
forms of language
114
Language Instruction
Principles guiding language instruction
in this stage of development:
Integrating oral and written language
Language targets can include components of
both oral and written language
Example for a second-grade student with
difficulties in phonological awareness and
pragmatic abilities
Two examples of how to use narrative language
as a means of integrating oral and written
115
language
Language Instruction,
continued
Focus on the metas
Engaging students on both the concrete and
abstract levels
Using rehearsal of a performance of a piece
of literature to emphasize different discourse
types, pragmatic abilities, and talking about
talking, language, and thinking
Narrative discourse
Dynamic assessment and mediated teaching
Using a variety of narrative genres
116
Language Instruction,
continued
Nonnarrative (expository) discourses
Characteristics of nonnarrative discourse
Graphical schemas as visual organizers
Key words
Mathematics discourse
Teacher instruction
Reading mathematical symbols
Story problems
Self-talk strategies
117
118
119
Web-Based Instruction
Teacher-hosted web pages
Teacher- and state-sponsored networks
Online technologies supporting
instruction
Case Western Reserve Universitys
website tutorial for teachers
Internet4Classrooms web design
resources for teachers
120
Web-Based Instruction,
continued
Websites offering specific language
instruction materials
LD Online website resources
121
School-Age Children
with Severe Impairments
Primary goal of language instruction
Independence in daily living and
vocational settings
Functional repertoire of communication
and language skills
Contexts for language instruction
Published programs for teaching
functional language
122
AAC systems and devices
Chapter 6
Language Assessment and Instruction
for Adolescents
Standardized measures
Oral language
Written language
124
Nonstandardized
Assessment
Semantics
A rubric for evaluating the students
knowledge of the literate lexicon
Special verb classes
Factitives
Nonfactitives
125
Nonstandardized Assessment,
continued
Syntax and morphology
Assessing through an oral narrative
sample
Three aspects of oral and written syntax
T-unit length
Clause density (subordination index)
High-level, low-frequency structures
characteristic of an advanced literate style
126
Assessing Pragmatics
Conversational competence
Larson and McKinleys assessment procedure
Two procedures for assessing negotiation
abilities
Role playing
Hypothetical situations
Assessing Pragmatics,
continued
Discourse genres
Assessing competence with classroom
discourse
Observational checklist
Student self-rating
Drawing inferences
128
Assessing Pragmatics,
continued
Retelling complete and complicated narratives
Summarizing narratives through the use of
cohesive markers
Cohesive devices used by good writers
130
Language Instruction
Purposes of language instruction
Prerequisites for students being
successful with compensatory
learning strategies
131
Language Instruction,
continued
Semantics
Focus on the literate lexicon
Elliss five elaboration techniques used to
teach vocabulary
The Family Learning Associations six-step
vocabulary development program
Denver Public Schools Literacy Support
Team
Metalinguistic approaches to semantics
instruction
132
Semantics Instruction,
continued
Web resources for teaching figurative
language
133
Pragmatics Instruction
Conversational competence
Teaching oral persuasion
Teaching conversational discourse
Peer modeling
Helping students with classroom
discourse
Models of scaffolding
Graphic organizers
Role playing
135
Pragmatics Instruction,
continued
Narrative discourse
Reading good stories
Scrambling stories for students to reassemble
Using story frames
Online resources
Literature-based rehearsal and performance
Explicit instruction about story grammars
Story grammar checklists
Including cohesive markers
136
Pragmatics Instruction,
continued
Expository discourse
Teaching the macrostructures of
different expository types
Teaching students how to understand
persuasive discourse functions
Teaching students to write expository
discourse
Rubrics
Online resources
137
Pragmatics Instruction,
continued
Techniques for students with
LLD
Three phases of writing
expository text
The planning stagegenerating ideas
Generating and organizing
sentences into coherent wholes
Editing their work
138
139
Secondary Students
with Severe Impairments
Teaching functional communication and
language skills
Individualized Transition Plans
Teaching conversational skills
Teaching the communication skills needed for
self-advocacy
Helping students learn the communication and
language skills needed outside school
Teaching skills needed in independent living
140
contexts
Secondary Students
with Severe Impairments,
continued
Alternative and Augmentative
Communication (AAC)
Evaluating the communicative
appropriateness and effectiveness of the
AAC systems used by students in a
secondary school environment
Guidelines for assessing AAC systems
needed for a variety of different
communicative situations
Teacher resources
141
Chapter 7
Reading Concepts and
Assessment
Development of Reading
Early reading
Three primary concepts guiding reading
instruction
Phonemic awareness
Understanding the link between speech sounds
and printed words (alphabetic understanding)
Automaticity with the phonological/alphabetic
code
144
145
146
Advanced Reading
Students shift from learning to read to
reading to learn
Characteristics of reading at this stage
Focus on comprehension
Variables affecting comprehension
Student background, experiences, skills,
motivation
The content to be read
The reading purpose
147
Reading Comprehension,
continued
Three types of comprehension
Text explicit
Text implicit
Script implicit
149
Assessment of Reading
Using assessment to guide
instruction
Formal tests to obtain quantitative
information
Advantages and limitations of formal
tests
Survey and diagnostic tests
Commonly used diagnostic tests
150
Informal Assessment
Applying the results of informal
assessment to reading instruction
Advantages of informal assessment
Informal reading inventories
Curriculum-based assessment
151
Selected Teaching
Strategies
Direct instruction of critical skills for the
different stages of reading development
Learning stages
Acquisition learning
Proficiency learning
Generalization learning
154
Chapter 8
Reading Instruction
Reading Instruction
Bottom-up (decoding) and top-down
(holistic) approaches
Phonemic awareness
Rationale for teaching phonemic
awareness
General recommendations for teaching
phonological awareness
156
Word Recognition
1. Sight word identification
Automaticity
Strategies for promoting recognition and
recall of sight words
Using word banks
Fernalds multisensory method
The Edmark program
Helping students build a functional reading
vocabulary
157
Word Recognition,
continued
2. Phonetic analysis
158
Word Recognition,
continued
3. Structural analysis
Morphemic analysis
Syllabication
Teaching compound words
Teaching affixes
Contractions
4. Contextual analysis
159
Word Recognition,
continued
Combining word recognition strategies
Steps to follow in teaching students to
combine word recognition strategies
DISSECT
160
Vocabulary
Importance of developing a strong
vocabulary
Approaches to enhancing vocabulary
development
161
Fluency
Definition of fluency
Repeated readings
Steps in using multiple oral reading
approach
Cautions in using repeated readings to
promote reading achievement
162
Comprehension
Definition
Specific levels of comprehension
The eight kinds of comprehension
instruction most likely to be effective
and promising
Holistic programs
Key concepts
Specific activities
The language experience approach (LEA)
163
Comprehension, continued
Teacher-directed questioning strategies
Directed reading/thinking activity (DRTA)
Student-directed strategies
Why students need strategies to understand
expository text
Comprehension monitoring (self-questioning)
Importance of self-questioning in comprehension
Features characteristic of comprehension
monitoring
164
The Reads-It approach
Comprehension, continued
Other student-directed strategies
RAP
SQ3R
Collaborative reading
Graphic organizers
The value of graphic organizers
Semantic mapping
165
166
Commercial Reading
Programs
Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Program for
Reading, Spelling, and Speech
Phonological Awareness Training for Reading
Edmark Reading Program
Gillingham-Stillman Remedial Reading Manual
Reading Mastery Program
SRS Corrective Reading Program
Basal Readers
167
Chapter 9
Handwriting Assessment and
Instruction
Handwriting Development,
continued
Five levels of early handwriting
development
171
Sequence of Skills
From prewriting to skilled written
expression
The developmental sequence of
handwriting skills
Patterns of development
Basic prewriting skills
Proper posture
Proper pencil grip
How to recognize and form uppercase and
lowercase manuscript letters
172
Sequence of Skills,
continued
Refining of manuscript writing and
beginnings of the forming of some
cursive letters
Cursive writing
Written expression
Assessment of Handwriting
Common assessment methods:
analysis of errors in
Letter formation
Spacing
Slant
Line quality
Letter size and alignment
Writing rate
174
175
Specific scales
Informal assessments
Student work developed in natural settings,
especially the classroom
A hierarchy of handwriting skills
Most common forms of illegibilities
Elements of legibility
176
177
179
180
181
Instructional Activities
Readiness skills
Primary objectives
Developing handedness
Developing visualmotor skills
Instructional Activities,
continued
Beginning to write
Pencil grip
Posture
Activities for integrating visual motor
skills into prerequisite writing skills
Questions and supports for handwriting
development
183
Instructional Activities,
continued
Manuscript writing
Letters to focus on in initial instruction
Steps and guidelines for students to
follow
Cursive writing
Grouping letters into shape categories
Steps and guidelines for students to
follow
Practice in penmanship
184
Instructional Activities,
continued
Handwriting programs
Common characteristics of effective programs
Guidelines to follow regardless of program
Guidelines for parents to follow in encouraging
handwriting practice at home
Remedial programs
Individualizing based on strengths and
weaknesses
Guidelines to follow for students with disabilities
185
Instructional Activities,
continued
Left-handedness
Incidence in the U.S.
Unique challenges faced by left-handed
writers
Modifications for left-handed writers
186
Chapter 10
Spelling Assessment and Instruction
188
189
190
Criterion-referenced tests
Published CRTs
Informal spelling inventories
Progress monitoring
191
Instructional Approaches
Purpose of spelling instruction
Principles for teaching spelling to
students with learning disabilities
Seven common effective practices
Traditional approaches
Traditional approach may not be
effective for students with disabilities
Importance of adapting and modifying
commercial spelling texts
192
Instructional Approaches
Remedial approaches
Curriculum modifications for implementing
remedial programs
Multisensory approaches
Linguistic approaches
Rule-based, bottom-up instruction
Direct teacher instruction
193
194
Cognitive approaches
195
Mnemonic devices
Motivational techniques
Computer-assisted instruction
Detecting and correcting errors
Activities for teaching proofreading
Specific dictionary skills
196
Study skills
Guidelines for teaching study skills
197
Chapter 11
Written Expression
Written Expression
Recent research on written language
Challenges for students, including
students with disabilities
Aspects of written expression
Formulation
Syntax
199
202
Assessment
Emphases of assessment
Assessing composition
Assessing through indirect measures
Assessment of process
Assessment through holistic rating
Formal assessment
Subtests of achievement and diagnostic
tests
Test of Written Language (TOWL-3)
203
Assessment, continued
Informal assessment
ASCDs qualities of writing to be assessed
Prewriting considerations
Students experiential background
Prewriting skills
Motivation and readiness for writing
Writing fluency
Words per sentence
Types of sentences used
204
Assessment, continued
Vocabulary
Typetoken ratio
Use of unique words
Syntactical analysis
Specific skills
Trends in error patterns
205
Assessment, continued
Content assessment
Questions to guide assessment of content
Assessment of logical flow
Assessment rubrics
Portfolios
Learning-to-learn strategies related to
writing
Postwriting assessment
Questions guiding postwriting
206
Instructional Strategies
Commitment to student success
Relationship to general education
curriculum
Prewriting strategies
Stimulation of students ideas
Motivating students to write from their
own interests
207
Instructional Strategies,
continued
Steps to follow
Writing/drafting strategies
General considerations
Author role
Secretarial role
208
Writing/drafting strategies,
continued
A supports model for students with disabilities
Using selective feedback
Conducive atmosphere
Language experience approach (LEA)
Relating functional writing to specific purposes
Keeping first assignments short
Developing vocabulary
Goals of vocabulary instruction
Reducing the stress of spelling
209
Writing/drafting strategies,
continued
Sentence development
Patterned sentence guides and structures
Sentence extension/sentence combining
Paragraph development
Elements to emphasize
Beginning with brief, functional writing tasks
Letter writing
Paraphrasing
Graphic organizers
Go For ITNOW
210
Writing/drafting strategies,
continued
Composition writing considerations
Myklebust-Johnson stage model
Concretedescriptive
Concreteimaginative
Abstractdescriptive
Abstractimaginative
211
Writing/drafting strategies,
continued
Postwriting strategies: revising and
editing
Selling students on the concept of the
working draft
Self-evaluation questions to guide students in
revising and editing
Organizing postwriting instructional exercises
COPS
REVISE
Peer review and feedback
212
Chapter 12
Adolescents with Language Disabilities
Adolescence
Definition of adolescence
Period between childhood and adulthood
Shift in emotional maturity
Beginning and end of adolescence
Puberty
Chronological age
Economic and/or emotional independence
Beginning to work and be free of parental sanctions
Questions to help define beginning and end of
adolescence
Subcategories of adolescence
215
Adolescence, continued
Tasks associated with adolescence
Significant tasks associated with
adolescence
How the presence of a disability affects
these tasks
216
Characteristics of Adolescence
Sexual maturation
Physical development
Moral development
Challenges created by rapid growth and
sexual maturation
Responses to appearances, actions, and/or
feelings
Emotional responses
Influence of peers
217
Characteristics of Adolescents
with Disabilities
Comparisons with students without disabilities
Academic deficits
Social skills deficits
Types of disabilities affected
Lack of peer acceptance
Motivation problems
Behavior problems
Psychological problems
218
Characteristics of Adolescents
with Disabilities, continued
General problems facing adolescents
Adolescents with
Language Disabilities
Receptive language
How a difficulty in this area affects adolescents in
school
Reading
Importance of teaching reading at the
secondary level
Students reading vocabulary
Woodward and Peters list of frequently used
content terms
Using SQ3R with secondary students
Literacy strategies
220
Listening and attention
Adolescents with
Language Disabilities, continued
Expressive language
Written expression
Teaching written expression in steps
Isolated skills approach
Holistic approach
Spelling
Handwriting
Oral expression: Using Quick-Talks
Adolescents with
Language Disabilities, continued
General instructional considerations
with adolescents
Student motivation
Role of family and peers
Curricular options
Alternative curricular options
Remediation
Maintenance
Functionality
222
Adolescents with
Language Disabilities, continued
Study skills
Commonly used study skills and their
significance for learning
Accommodations
Teacher efforts to modify the learning
environment
Advanced organizers
Post-organizers
223
Adolescents with
Language Disabilities, continued
General school survival skills
Teacher-pleasing behaviors
Six survival skills secondary students
need
Activities to teach school survival skills
224