Quantum Computing
 Introduction
 “I think I can safely say that nobody
understands quantum mechanics” - Feynman
 1982 - Feynman proposed the idea of creating
machines based on the laws of quantum
mechanics instead of the laws of classical
physics.
 1985 - David Deutsch developed the quantum turing
machine, showing that quantum circuits are universal.
 1994 - Peter Shor came up with a quantum
algorithm to factor very large numbers in polynomial
time.
1997 - Lov Grover develops a quantum search
algorithm with O(√N) complexity
 Quantum computer
 A quantum computer is any device for
computation that makes direct use of
distinctively quantum mechanical
phenomena , such as superposition and
entanglement , to perform operations on data.

 The basic principle :

the quantum properties of particles can be
used to represent and structure data, and that
quantum mechanisms can be devised and built
to perform operations with these data
 Representation of Data - Qubits
A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of
two states denoted by |0> and |1>. A single bit of this form is
known as a qubit
A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two
energy levels of an atom. An excited state representing |1>
and a ground state representing |0>.
Light pulse of
frequency  for
Excited time interval t
State

Nucleus
Ground
State
Electron
State |0> State |1>
 Representation of Data - Superposition
Light pulse of
frequency  for time
interval t/2

State |0> State |0> + |1>

Consider a 3 bit qubit register. An equally weighted

superposition of all possible states would be denoted by:
1 1 1
|> = |000> + |001> + . . . + |111>
√8 √8 √8
 Operations on Qubits - Reversible Logic
Due to the nature of quantum physics, the destruction of
information in a gate will cause heat to be evolved which can
destroy the superposition of qubits.

Ex.
Input Output
The AND Gate In these 3 cases,
A B C information is
0 0 0 being destroyed
A
0 1 0
C
B 1 0 0
1 1 1

This type of gate cannot be used. We must use

Quantum Gates.
 Quantum Gates
 Quantum Gates are similar to classical gates, but do not have
a degenerate output. i.e. their original input state can be derived
from their output state, uniquely. They must be reversible.

This means that a deterministic computation can be performed

on a quantum computer only if it is reversible. Luckily, it has
been shown that any deterministic computation can be made
reversible.(Charles Bennet, 1973)
 Quantum Gates - Hadamard

Simplest gate involves one qubit and is called a Hadamard

Gate (also known as a square-root of NOT gate.) Used to put
qubits into superposition.

H H
State State | State
0> + |1> |1>
|0>

Note: Two Hadamard gates used in

succession can be used as a NOT gate
 Quantum Gates - Controlled NOT
A gate which operates on two qubits is called a
Controlled-NOT (CN) Gate. If the bit on the control line is
1, invert the bit on the target line.

Input Output
A - Target A’ A B A’ B’
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
B - Control B’ 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

Note: The CN gate has a similar

behavior to the XOR gate with some
extra information to make it reversible.
 Example Operation - Multiplication By 2
 We can build a reversible logic circuit to calculate multiplication
by 2 using CN gates arranged in the following manner:

Input Output
Carry One Carry Ones
Bit s Bit Bit Bit

0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0

0 Carry Bit

Ones Bit
H
 A Universal Quantum Computer
 The CCN gate has been shown to be a universal reversible
logic gate as it can be used as a NAND gate.

A - Target A’ Input Output

A B C A’ B’ C’
0 0 0 0 0 0
B - Control 1 B’ 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 1
C - Control 2 C’ 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1
When our target input is 1, our target
output is a result of a NAND of B and C.
 Bits vs Qubits
 The device computes by manipulating those
bits with the help of logic gates
 A qubit can hold a one, a zero, or, crucially,
a superposition of these.
 manipulating those qubits with the help of
quantum logic gates
 A classical computer has a memory made
up of bits , where each bit holds either a one
or a zero
 Bits vs. qubits

 the qubits can be in a superposition of all

the classically allowed states.
 the register is described by a wavefunction :
 the phases of the numbers can
constructively and destructively interfere
with one another; this is an important
feature for quantum algorithms.
 Bits vs Qubits
 For an n qubit quantum register, recording the state of
the register requires 2n complex numbers

 (the 3-qubit register requires 23 = 8 numbers).

 Consequently, the number of classical states encoded in

a quantum register grows exponentially with the
number of qubits

 For n=300, this is roughly 1090, more states than there

are atoms in the observable universe.
 Dimensions
 Small quantum dots, such as colloidal
semiconductor nanocrystals, can be as small as 2
to 10 nanometers, corresponding to 10 to 50 atoms
in diameter and a total of 100 to 100,000 atoms
within the quantum dot volume.

 At 10 nanometers in diameter, nearly 3 million

quantum dots could be lined up end to end and fit
within the width of a human thumb.
 How to find?
 the energy levels can be probed by optical
spectroscopy techniques.
 blue shift due to the confinement compared
to the bulk material .
 quantum dots of the same material, but with
different sizes, can emit light of different
colors.
 Applications

 sharper density of states

 superior transport and optical properties, and are
being researched for use in diode lasers ,
amplifiers, and biological sensors.
 use in solid-state quantum computation . By
applying small voltages to the leads, one can
control the flow of electrons through the quantum
dot and thereby make precise measurements of the
spin and other properties
 A fundamental problem
 in quantum physics is the issue of the
decoherence of quantum systems and the
transition between quantum and classical
behavior.
 via the Charge
 While spins have the intrinsic advantage of
long decoherence times, it is very hard to
measure a single spin directly via its
magnetic moment.
 yielding a potentially 100% reliable
measurement requires a switchable ``spin-
filter'' tunnel barrier which allows only, say,
spin-up but no spin-down electrons to
tunnel.
Given by
G.R.Srikanth
Thank u !