CHAPTER 1

Composition and soil

classification

Mainly due to physical and chemical

weathering of rock
Physical weathering causes reduction of size
without changes of the composition
* agent- erosion, freezing, unloading
Chemical weathering causes reduction in size
and altered the composition of rock
*agent- hydration, carbonation, oxidation

Weathering process

Soil type

Glacial soil
Aeolian soil

Marine soil
Alluvial soil

Residual soil

1.1 COMPONENTS OF SOILS

1.1 COMPONENTS OF SOILS

A soil mass, consists of solid soil particles, containing void

spaces between them. These voids may be filled either with
air or water, or both.
The soil will behave as a two phase system, when its void
space is filled with either water or air alone.
In other words, the soil mass will consists of only two phases,
i.e. solid and water (liquid), or solid and air (gas), respectively.
Such a condition is possible when either the soil is fully
saturated (the voids are totally filled with water, and there is no
air); or when the soil is fully dry (the voids are totally filled with
air, and no water).
But, as and when the soil mass is partially saturated ; its void
space will be filled up by water as well as air, and hence it will
behave as a three phase system.

1.1 COMPONENTS OF SOILS

1.1 COMPONENTS OF SOILS

1.2 Weight-Volume Relationships

1.2 Weight-Volume Relationships

VOLUME
V = Vs + Vv = Vs + (Vw + Va)
Where Vs = volume of soil solids
Vv = volume of voids
Vw = volume of water in the voids
Va = volume of air in the voids

Void ratio, e =

Porosity, n =

VV
VS
VV
VT

WEIGHT
W = Ws + Ww (Assume Wa = 0)
where Ws = weight of soil solids
Ww = weight of water

VW
Degree of saturation, Sr =
x 100%
VV

1.2 Weight-Volume Relationships

The relationship between void ratio (e) and porosity (n)

n=

Moisture content,
Unit weight

Ww
w
Ws

Dry Unit weight

WS
d
V

or

e
1 e

d
1 w

1.2 Weight-Volume Relationships

In English units
Unit weight, in pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3).
In SI units
Unit weight, in kilo Newtons per cubic meter (kN/m3).
Density

Dry Density

Ms
d
V

REMEMBER THIS
NOTE
Gravity Acceleration =
9.81 m/sec2.

Unit weight of water, w

is equal to
9.81 kN/m3 or
62.4 lb/ft3 or
1000 kg/m3.
1g/cm3
The unit weight in kN/m3 can be obtained from densities in kg/m3 as
where

= density of soil (kg/m3)

d - dry density of soil (kg/m3)
M = total mass of the soil sample (kg)
Ms = mass of soil solids in the sample (kg)
V = Total volume (m3)

Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture

Content, and Specific Gravity

Gs = Ws/(w x Vs)
Ws = Gsw
Ww = wWs = wGsw
where
Gs = specific gravity of soil
solids
w = moisture content
w = unit weight of water

Assume Vs = 1

Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture

Content, and Specific Gravity

W Ws Ww Gs w wGs w 1 w Gs w

V
V
1 e
1 e

Vw

Ws Gs w

V
1 e

Ws wGs w

wGs
w
w

Vw wGs

Vs
e

Sre = wGs

Gs w
1
d

Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture

Content, and Specific Gravity
If the soil sample is saturated
sat

W Ws Ww Gs w e w Gs e w

V
V
1 e
1 e

e = wGs

Sr = 1 when saturated

Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture

Content, and Specific Gravity
For Saturated soils

pw = density of water = 1000 kg/m3.

Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture

Content, and Specific Gravity
For UnSaturated soils

Mw = wMs = wGsw
From Eq. (3.13), density

Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content

Vv
V

If V is equal to 1, then Vv is equal to n, so Vs = 1 - n

Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content

Various Unit-Weight Relationships

Worked example 1
A specimen of clay was tested in the laboratory and the following data were
collected:
Mass of wet specimen
M1 = 148.8 g
Mass if dry specimen
M2 = 106.2 g
Volume of wet specimen
V = 86.2 cm3
Specific gravity of particles Gs = 2.70
Determine: (a) the water content, (b) the bulk and dry densities, (c) the void ratio
and porosity, and (d) the degree of saturation.
Solution :

Worked example 1

Worked Example 2
Given :
1. The weight of a chunk of moist soil sample is 45.6 Ib.
2. The volume of the soil chunk measured before drying is 0.40 ft3.
3. After the sample is dried out in an oven, its weight is 37.8 Ib.
4. The specific gravity of solids is 2.65.
Required
(a) Water content. (b) Unit weight of moist soil. (c) Void ratio.
(d) Porosity (e) Degree of saturation.
Solution:

Worked Example 2
Unit weight of moist soil ()

Void ratio (e)

Porosity (n)

Degree of saturation (s)

Worked Example 3
Given:
1. The moist mass of a soil specimen is 20.7 kg.
2. The specimen's volume measured before drying is 0.011 m3.
3. The specimen's dried mass is 16.3 kg.
4. The specific gravity of solids is 2.68.
Required (a) Void ratio (b)Degree of saturation (c) Wet unit mass (d) Dry unit
mass (e) Wet unit weight (f) Dry unit weight
Solution:

Worked Example 3
Void ratio (e)

Degree of saturation (s)

Wet unit mass ()

Worked Example 3

Dry unit mass (d)

Wet unit weight ()

Dry unit weight (d)

Worked Example 4
Given:
An undisturbed soil sample has the following data:
1. Void ratio = 0.78.
2. Water content = 12%.
3. Specific gravity of solids = 2.68.
Required
(a) Wet unit weight (b) Dry unit weight (c) Degree of saturation.
(d) Porosity.
Solution:

Assume

Worked Example 4
void ratio (e) =

Worked Example 4
Wet unit weight ()

Dry unit weight (d)

Degree of saturation (s)

Porosity (n)

Worked Example 5
Given:
1. A 100% saturated soil has a wet unit weight of 120 lb/ft3.
2. The water content of this saturated soil was determined to be 36%.
Required
(a) Void ratio (b) Specific gravity of solids.
Solution:

Worked Example 5

Void ratio (e)

Specific gravity of solids (Gs)

Worked Example 6
Given:
A soil sample has the following data:
1. Void ratio = 0.94.
2. Degree of saturation = 35%.
3. Specific gravity of solids = 2.71.
Required
1. Water content.
2. Unit weight.
Solution :

Worked Example 6
From the given void ratio,

Water content.

Substitute Eq. (A) into Eq. (B)

Unit weight

From the given degree of saturation,

S = VW/VV = 0.35

SOIL PARTICLES SIZE AND SHAPE

Shape of soil particle
Gravel

Sand

Coarse soil

Silt

Clay

Fine soil

visible to the naked eye

determined by means
of an electron microscope.

Rounded

Flaky

Irregular

Angular

Elongated

Flaky &
Elongated

Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM)

Particles Size Distribution

Most natural soil is composite soil; a mixture of different particles size and the
distribution and these characteristic also have a significant on its
engineering behaviour.
Two methods are generally used to find particles size distribution of soil:
Sieve analysis for particles sizes larger than 0.075mm in diameter
Hydrometer analysis for particles sizes smaller than 0.075mm in diameter.

Sieve analysis

Hydrometer analysis

Particles Size Distribution

Mechanical or sieve analysis (for grain sizes >#200 sieve)
ASTM

Size (m)

Particles Size Distribution

Sedimentation or hydrometer tests (for grain sizes <#200 sieve)
based on Stoke.s law:

Hydrometer No.
Test Temperature
Meniscus correction
Reading in dispersant solution, R0'
Date
Time
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.16
9.20
9.27
9.42
10.12
11.12
1.12
4.42

Elapsed
time
t
minutes
0
0.5
1
2
4
8
15
30
60
120
240
450
1420

769333
26oC
0.5

-1.500

Particle density, Gs
Viscosity of water, ?
Initial dry mass of soil

2.63
0.8724
91.979 g

Hydometer
reading
Rh'

True
reading
Rh

Effective
depth
HR
mm

Modified
reading
Rd

Particle
diameter
m

Percentage
Finer than D
K
%

9.50
9.00
8.00
7.50
6.50
5.50
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.50
0.50
0.00

10.00
9.50
8.50
8.00
7.00
6.00
4.50
3.50
2.50
2.00
1.00
0.50

158.25
160.16
163.98
165.89
169.71
173.53
179.26
183.09
186.91
188.82
192.64
194.55

11.00
10.50
9.50
9.00
8.00
7.00
5.50
4.50
3.50
3.00
2.00
1.50

59.000
51.208
36.639
26.058
18.637
13.763
9.891
7.068
5.050
3.589
2.647
1.498

19.296
18.419
16.665
15.788
14.034
12.279
9.648
7.894
6.140
5.263
3.508
2.631

Particles Size Distribution

Sieve size for various classification system

Particles Size Distribution

Sieve test
Sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil sample through a set of sieve that
have progressively smaller opening
After the soil is shaken, the mass of soil retained on each sieve is determined.

Particles Size Distribution

Sieve test
Once the percent finer for each sieve is calculated as in step 5, the
calculation are plotted on semilogarithmic graph paper with percent finer as
ordinate (arithmetic scale) and sieve opening as absicca (logarithmic scale).
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
BRINCHANG BH13 (6.0-7.0 m)
100
PERCENTAGE PASSING (%)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001

0.01

0.1

SIEVE SIZES (mm)

10

100

Particles Size Distribution

Sieve analysis example
Sieve mesh
size (mm)

Mass
retained (g)

Percentage
retained

Percentage
finer
(passing)

14.0

100.0

10.0

3.5

1.2

98.8

6.3

7.6

2.6

96.2

5.0

7.0

2.4

93.8

3.35

14.3

4.9

88.9

2.0

21.1

7.2

81.7

1.18

56.7

19.4

62.3

0.600

73.4

25.1

37.2

0.425

22.2

7.6

29.6

0.300

26.9

9.2

20.4

0.212

18.4

6.3

14.1

0.150

15.2

5.2

8.9

0.063

17.5

6.0

2.9

Pan

8.5

2.9

Particles Size Distribution

Sieve analysis example

The soil comprises:

18% gravel,
45% coarse sand,
24% medium sand,
10% fine sand,
3% silt, and is classified therefore as: a well-graded Gravelly
Sand

Particles Size Distribution

Hydrometer analysis
If a soil contains appreciable quantities of fine fractions hydrometer
analysis is done.
It is very useful to determine the percentage of clay (<0.002 mm)

Analysis of Particle-size Distribution

A - a poorly-graded medium SAND (probably estuarine or flood-plain alluvium)

B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. equal amounts of gravel and sand)
C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND
D - a sandy SILT (perhaps a deltaic or estuarine silt)
E - a typical silty CLAY (e.g. London clay, Oxford clay)

Analysis of Particle-size Distribution

Effective size
d10
Uniformity coefficient
Cu = d60 / d10
Coefficient of gradation
Ck = d30 / d60 d10

Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil

Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil
Ck between 0.5 and 2.0 indicates a well-graded soil
Ck < 0.1 indicates a possible gap-graded soil

Consistency of Soil
Consistency is the characteristic of fine-grained material (silt and clay) which
related with moisture content.
The fine grained soil can behave as solid, semi solid, plastic and liquid
depending on the amount of water

SL

PL

LL

Atterbergs Limit and Consistency

Plastic limit, PL
The ability of soil to change their shape without break or crack.
The value of plastic limit is determine by rolling the soil by hand and break or
crack at 3mm in diameter.

Liquid limit, LL
Is the amount of water content when the soil change from plastic phase to
liquid phase.
The moisture content corresponding to 25 drops (blows) as read from the
represents liquid limit or
The moisture content corresponding to 20 mm penetration for 5 second

Plasticity index, PI
The range of water content for soil in plastic state
PI= LL - PL

Atterbergs Limit and Consistency

(0.0075mm)

Atterbergs Limit and Consistency

Liquid Limit Determination (Casagrande method)

Liquid limit test results by using Casagrande method

Liquid Limit Determination (Cone penetrometer)

Liquid limit and Plastic limit test results by using

Cone Penetrometer method

Plastic Limit

3mm

Activity
The proportion of clay mineral (< 2 m size) in a fine soil
affects its current state, particularly its tendency to swell
and shrink with changes in water content.
The degree of plasticity related to the clay content is
called the activity of the soil.
Activity = PI / (% clay particles)

Plasticity Chart

A plasticity chart is provided to aid classification

Soil Classification

Classification systems provide a common language to express

concisely the general characteristic of soil.

The grain size distribution and plasticity of soils are commonly

used to classify the soil

There are some system in soil classification of soil such as

(i) The Unified Soil Classification (USC) System
(ii) AASHTO Classification System
(iii)British Soil Classification System

Soil Classification (USCS)

(0.075 mm)

USCS

For Gravelly and sandy soil

For Inorganic silty and clayey soil

For organic
silty and
clayey soil

AASHTO System
No. 10 = 2.0 mm
No. 40 = 0.425 mm
No. 200 = 0.075 mm
How to classify?
1.Determine the
percentage passing
sieve no.200
2.Start from left to right

AASHTO System

AASHTO flow chart (Coduto et al. , 2011)

Group Index (GI)

To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade
material.
The smaller the value of the GI, the better the soil as a
highway material
GI=(F-35)[0.2+0.005(LL- 40)] + 0.01(F -15)(PI 10),
where F is percent passing 0.075 mm
GI = 0.01(F -15)(PI 10) for A-2-6 and A-2-7
Rules
1.If GI is negative, taken as 0
2.Rounded the GI to the nearest number

Example 1

Example 2

BSCS (Coarse soil)

BSCS (Fine soils)

Problems