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MODULATION AND
TRANSMISSION
Info.
Source
Source
Encoder
Channel
Encoder
Digital
Modulator
Channel
Info.
Source
Source
Decoder
Channel
Decoder
Digital
Demodulator
Information source
Digital
Analog
Source Encoder:
The aim of source coding is to take the source data and make it smaller. Each code
must be unique decodable.
Data compression
Channel Encoder:
Error detection and possibly correct errors by introducing redundancy to the stream
of bits. The Channel Encoder will add bits to the message bits to be transmitted
systematically. After passing through the channel, the Channel decoder will detect
and correct the errors. A simple example is to send 000 (111 correspondingly)
instead of sending only one 0 (1 correspondingly) to the channel.
Channel
Sampling
Quantization
Encoding
Sampling Theorem
fs 2fm (Hz),
Ts 1/(2fm) sec,
fm message signal frequency
Figure 4.4 Spectra for various sampling rates. (a) Sampled spectrum
(fs > 2fm). (b) Sampled spectrum (fs < 2fm).
sampling
Natural
sampling
Flat
Top sampling
Impulse Sampling
y (t ) x (t ) impulse train
x (t )
(t nT )
y (t ) y (t )
x(nt ) (t nT )
Natural Sampling
P(t nT )
Example 6.1
Answer:
1.
2.
3.
Example 6.2
Answer
1.
2.
Example 6.3
b)
Answer
a)
b)
Quantization
Quantization
Level
Resolution
Example 6.4
The resolution
b.
c.
Answer
a.
Resolution is 1V
b.
c.
d.
Quantized value
1.3
1.5
0.2
3.6
3.5
0.1
2.5
0.2
2.3
DR
is the ratio of largest possible quantized voltage to the smallest possible
quantized voltage (other than 0) that can be decoded by digital-to-analog
converter in the receiver.
In other word, DR is the number of quantization level excluding 0V. Since the
number of bits used for a PCM code depends of the dynamic range. The
relationship between DR and the number of bits in PCM code is
Example 6.5
b.
c.
Resolution
d.
Quantization error
Answer
SQR is worse of low level signals than for high level signals
Signal change at small magnitude will carry the uniform quantizer through
more steps than the same change at large magnitude
Companding Characteristics
ln 1 x xmax
-Law
where
ln 1
sgn x
1 x 0
1 x 0
sgn x
A x xmax
1 ln A
A-Law
ymax
y
ymax
sgn x 0
1 ln A x xmax
1 ln A
x
xmax
sgn x
A
x
1
1
A xmax
Encoding
101 111 110 001 010 100 111 100 011 010 101
Example 6.6
For PCM the bit PCM code (the folded binary code),
determine the quantize voltage, quantization error
(Qe), and PCM code for the analog sample voltage
of +1.07V .
Answer
Coding Efficiency
coding efficiency
Example 6.7
Answer
Coding efficiency = 8.63/9x100 = 95.89%
The BW of binary PCM waveforms depend on the bit rate (BR) and
the waveform pulse shape (sinx/x or rectangular) used to present
the data.
This is obtained only when sinx/x type pulse is used to generate PCM
waveform
However, usually a rectangular type of pulse shape is used so, the Binary
Encoded PCM waveform is:
BWpcm = BR , Unit : Hz
BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Dept of Communication Engineering, FKEE
Example
Answer
Sampling frequency, fs= 2fm = 2x40kHz = 80kHz
BR = 4x80k = 320kbps
Example 6.8
Answer
BW = BR = 1/2x63k = 31.5kHz
Example 6.9
Bit rate, BR
b.
Answer
a.
The amplitude of a constant width, constantposition pulse is varied according to the amplitude
of the sample of the analog signal.
Figure 4.12
Pulse modulation:
(a) analogue signal;
(b) sample pulse;
(c) PWM;
(d) PPM;
(e) PAM;
(f) PCM
Baseband Transmission
Each pulse carry energy (area under the pulse) necessary for detection,
advantageous to have pulse width, T, equal to bit time T.
Another way is to assign two polarity (bipolar), i.e., positive polarity for
binary 1 and negative polarity for binary 0. Thus, described as
sequence of changing polarity.
2. Return-to-zero (RZ)
4. Multilevel binary
BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Dept of Communication Engineering, FKEE
PCM waveforms
PCM waveforms
Compliment of NRZ M.
Unipolar RZ
0 absence of pulse
Bipolar RZ
Phase Encoded
1 half bit wide pulse position during first half of bit interval.
0 half bit wide pulse position during second half of bit interval.
Bi-phase-Mark
0 no second transition
Bi-phase-S
1 no second transition
Delay Modulation
Dicode NRZ
Dicode RZ
DIGITAL MODULATION
Terminology
M-ary Encoding
Bit per second (bps) is higher than baud for M-ary system
because each symbol carries more bit.
N0
= kNT
where:
PR = average power in the received signal (Unit: W)
Tb = bit duration (Unit: s)
k = 1.38 10-23 J/K (Boltzmann's constant)
NT = noise temperature referred to the receiver
input (Unit: K)
BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Dept of Communication Engineering, FKEE
Channel Capacity
Nyquist
channel capacity is the theoretical limit of the
B
BW
log
M
Simplest
modulation technique where binary information
Thus,
the modulated
wave is either or 0.
Hence, it is sometime
referred as on-off keying
(OOK).
Eb
1
Pbe erfc
2
2N0
Example
Eb
1
Pbe erfc
2
2N0
1
1 Eb
1
1
erfc 0.32
Pbe erfc
2
2 N0
2
2
1
1
Pbe erfc 0.16 erfc 0.4
2
2
BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Dept of Communication Engineering, FKEE
1
Pbe erfc 0.4
2
1
Pbe 0.57161
2
Pbe 0.2858
From table
Pbe
e
2
Pbe
Pbe
Eb
2 N0
Eb
2 N0
Eb
N0
1
1
e
e
2
2
1 12 1.11
1 0.555
e
e
2
2
1
0.5741 0.2870
2
Also
Therefore, for
for
Bit rate and baud rate of FSK is equal. But the bandwidth can be
approximated by
BW = 2(f +B)
which is similar to Carsons rule except,
fm is replace with B.
To prevent
discontinuities, the
modulation can be
achieved by frequency
modulating a common
carrier.
Figure 4.20
Generation circuit:
a)
b)
FSK
CFSK
Figure 4.21 FSK modulator, tb, time of one bit = 1/fb; fm, mark frequency; fs, space
frequency; T1, period of shortest cycle; 1/ T1, fundamental frequency of binary square
wave; fb, input bit rate (bps)
BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Dept of Communication Engineering, FKEE
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.23 (a) Coherent and (b) noncoherent detection for FSK.
BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Dept of Communication Engineering, FKEE
The
probability of bit error for coherent FSK
detector is given by:
Eb
1
Pbe erfc
2
2N0
1
Pbe e
2
Eb
2 N0
UP = unipolar
BP = bipolar
where
leaving
filtered out
where
leaving
filtered out
BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Dept of Communication Engineering, FKEE
Figure 4.26 BPSK modulator: (a) truth table; (b) phasor diagram; (c)
constellation diagram
BEB31803 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Dept of Communication Engineering, FKEE
Eb
1
Pbe erfc
2
N0
1 N0
Pbe e
2
PSK
DPSK
The
I bit modulates a carrier that is in phase with
reference oscillator (I for in phase channel). The Q
bit modulates a carrier that is 900 out of phase with the
reference carrier (Q for quadrature channel).
).
QPSK modulator
QPSK Receiver
QPSK receiver
The
receive QPSK signal, () is one of the inputs to the I
product detector.
(logic 0)
filtered out
equal 0
The
received QPSK signal, () is one of the input to
(logic 0)
filtered out
Equal 0