Metallurgy 1

Metallurgy is the science and

technology of metal. It is the
oldest of the sciences devoted to
the study of engineering
materials. Metallurgy has evolved
into three separate groups:
extractive, mechanical, and
physical.

Metallurgical Engineering
Metallurgical engineering or
metallurgy is the study of metals
and is the oldest sciences
devoted to the study of
engineering materials.

Extractive Metallurgy
Extractive metallurgy is the study of the
extraction and purification of metals from
their ores.
Extracting a metal from its ore is
conducted in several process steps.
For example, the extraction route from ore
to refined metal includes any or all of the
following process steps.

Mechanical Metallurgy
Mechanical metallurgy is the
study of the techniques and
mechanical forces that shape or
make finished forms of metal.

Physical Metallurgy

Physical metallurgy is the

study of the effect of structure
on the properties of metals.
The two structures studied in
physical metallurgy are the
crystal structure and micro
structure.
See figure 1-4
The crystal structure is the
arrangement of atoms in the
metal.
An atom is the smallest
building block of matter that
can exist alone or in
combination.
It cannot be divided without
changing its basic character.

The crystal structure is shown

through modeling.
The microstructure is the
microscopic arrangement of
the components, or phases,
within a metal.
The technology of heat
treatment of steels is based on
a specific crystal structure and
microstructure change that
occurs when steel is rapidly
cooled from a high
temperature.
These changes lead to
hardening and strengthening
of steels.

Ceramic Engineering
Ceramic engineering, or ceramics,
is the study of the development
and production of products made
from nonmetallic, inorganic
materials by firing at high
temperatures. Ceramic materials
are divided into four groups:

Ceramic Engineering Cont.

Clay-based materials
Refractories
Glasses
Inorganic cements

Polymer Engineering
Polymer engineering or polymer is
the study of the development and
production of synthetic organic
materials. Polymer are divided
into two groups:

Polymer Engineering Cont.

Thermoplatics
Thermosets
Polymer are used I applications such as
adhesives, building products, fibers
sporting goods, and automotive and
aerospace components.

Composite Engineering
Composite engineering, or
composites, is the study of the
applicability of combinations of
materials. Composites are used to
strengthen metals, ceramics, or
polymers and improve their
structural usefulness.

Materials Engineering
Materials engineering, which
crosses the boundaries of all the
branches of materials sciences, is
the study of the evaluation of the
characteristic properties of all
materials.

METAL IDENTIFICATION
Metal is performed by studying certain
characteristics that metals exhibit. A
metal is described as a pure metal or
as an alloy and may be further divided
into and identified as ferrous or
nonferrous. Metals and all other
materials exhibit three types of
properties that help identify the
materials.These properties are:
Physical properties
Mechanical properties
Chemical properties.

Metals and Alloys

Metals refer strictly to pure metals, which are
also chemical elements.
For example, copper, iron, manganese, and
zinc, are chemical elements and pure metals.
Pure metals, which are usually soft and have
low-strength, have extremely limited usage in
engineering applications. Alloys are materials
that have metallic properties and are composed
of two or more chemical elements. At least one
of the elements in an alloy is metal.
See figure 1-6

Ferrous and Nonferrous

Metals and alloys are also described as
ferrous or nonferrous. Ferrous metallurgy
encompasses alloys based on iron, where
the major alloying element is iron.
Nonferrous metallurgy encompasses all
other pure metals and alloy systems.

Chemical Analysis
Chemical analysis is the key to the
identification of alloys and is used to
determine the weight percentages of all the
elements that make up alloys.

Properties
A property is a measurable or observable
attribute of a material that is of a physical,
mechanical, or chemical nature.

Physical Properties
Physical properties are the
characteristic response of
materials to forms of energy such
as heat, light, electricity, and
magnetism. Color, density,
magnetic permeability, and weight
of a material are physical
properties.

Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties are the
characteristic dimensional
changes in response to applied
external or internal mechanical
forces.

Chemical Properties
Chemical properties are the
characteristic responses of
materials in chemical
environment. Corrosion
resistance and resistance to acids
and alkalies are examples of
chemical properties.

Process Condition
Metals may be supplied as cast, as
wrought, or from powders.
The properties of cast and wrought
metals any be substantially and
identifiably different. Cast metals are
produced from molten metal solidifying in
a mold cavity.

Process Condition Cont.

Wrought metals are worked into finished forms. They are
worked using processes such as drawing, extruding,
rolling, and pressing. Metal powders are used when
stringent composition controls are required. For example,
metal powders are used in the production of superalloys.
Superalloys are various
high-strength, often complex alloys having resistance to
elevated temperatures.

Properties of Engineering
Materials

Mechanical Properties
Physical Properties
Thermal Properties
Electrical Properties
Chemical Properties
Magnetic Properties
Optical Properties

Mechanical Properties

Malleability
Ductility
Hardness
Brittleness
Fatigue
Toughness
Elasticity
Plasticity
Stiffness

Mechanical Properties
Malleability ability of a material to be
plastically deformed by hammering or filling
into sheet form. Eg. Gold.
Ductility ability of a material to be plastically
(permanently) deformed by tension before
fracture occurs. Eg. Wire drawing. Eg. Copper
wire.
Hardness ability of a material to resist
scratching or penetration. Eg. Glass.

 Brittleness tendency to fracture without

appreciable deformation particularly under
low stress. Eg. Glass
Fatigue the failure of a material under
the action of repeated alternating stresses.
Eg. Aluminium wire
Toughness materials ability to withstand
stresses as well as deformations. Eg. Steel.
Elasticity materials ability to return to its
original shape after being subjected to a load
that caused deformation. Eg. Elastic band

 Plasticity the ability f a solid material to

undergo some degree of permanent deformation
without rupture. Eg. Hot working a metal,
plaster sine
Stiffness a measure of a materials ability to
resist deformation or deflection under load. Eg.
Bridge structure

Importance of Mechanical
Properties of Materials in
Engineering
The need to acquire knowledge of the properties
of materials is ultimately for one main reason:
The correct selection of a material for a given
application. In the case of mechanical
properties, these are data used to predict the
response of materials under mechanical loads.
They are expressed in terms of forces which
may deform materials or even cause them to fail
completely.

Mechanical Properties
of Metals
Stress(MPa)

500
CONTINUED

400
300
200
100

0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010

Strain

Mechanical Properties
Stiffness - Elastic Modulus or Youngs Modulus (MPa)
Strength - Yield, Ultimate, Fracture, Proof, Offset Yield.
Measured as stress (MPa)
Ductility - Measure of ability to deform plastically without
fracture - Elongation, Area Reduction, Fracture Strain - (no
units or mm/mm)
Toughness, Resilience - Measure of ability to absorb energy
(J/m3).
Hardness - Resistance to indentation/abrasion (Various
scales, e.g.; Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers.)

Stress and Strain

In a simplistic sense, stress may be
thought of as Load/Area.
Similarly, strain is the deformation of the
component/original length.
A stress may be direct, shear, or torsional
- leading to corresponding deformations.
Stress cannot be measured directly, but
deformation can be.

Direct Stress Examples

Load, P
L/2

Lo

Area
Ao

L/2

DirectStressTension

EngineeringStress

P
S
Ao

Load, P
L/2

Lo

L
e
Lo

Area
Ao

L/2

EngineeringStrain

DirectStressCompression

Tension Test
MeasuresP

Extensometer
MeasuresL

TypicalUniversal
TestingMachine

Modern Materials Testing System

Hydraulic
Wedge
Grips

Extensometer

Specimen

ASTM Tension Test Specimen

Ao=0.20in2

0.505"Dia

2GaugeLength

Lo

Raw Data Obtained

Load,P(kN)

Total
Elongation
UniformDeformation

X
Maximum
Load,Pmax
Elastic
Deformation

Elongation, L (mm)

Load,Pf

Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

EngineeringStress,S=P/Ao

Elongation

Sy

0.2%offset
yieldstress

(Ultimate)

Su

E
ProportionalLimit

EngineeringStrain,e=L/Lo)

 Express Load in Newtons (N) and Area in

mm2 to get Stress in MPa.
N
2 MPa
mm
Mechanical properties of metals are almost
always given in MPa or ksi.
Imperial units: Load in kips (1000 lbf) &
Area as in2 gives Stress in ksi (kips/in2)
1000 psi = 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa

Hookes Law
Elastic Deformation
Elastic deformation is not permanent; it means that when
the load is removed, the part returns to its original shape
and dimensions.
For most metals, the elastic region is linear. For some
materials, including metals such as cast iron, polymers,
and concrete, the elastic region is non-linear.
If the behavior is linear elastic, or nearly linear-elastic,
Hookes Law may be applied:

S Ee

Where E is the modulus of elasticity (MPa)

Stre ss(M Pa )

Modulus of Elasticity - Stiffness

500
CONTINUED

400
300
200

S (300 0)MPa
E

2x10 5 MPa
e (0.015 0.0)

100
0
0.000

0.002

0.004

0.006

Strain

0.008

0.010

Atomic Origin of Stiffness

NetInteratomicForce

dF
E

dr ro

Strongly Bonded

Weakly Bonded

InteratomicDistance

Shear
Strain,

Shear Stress,

ShearStress

Shear Stress and Strain

ShearStrain

shearstress,=ShearLoad/Area
shearstrain,=angleofdeformation(radians)
shearmodulus,G = /(elasticregion)

Elastic Properties of Materials

Poissons ratio: When a metal is strained
in one direction, there are corresponding
strains in all other directions.
For a uniaxial tension strain, the lateral strains
are constrictive.
Conversely, for a uniaxial compressive strain,
the lateral strains are expansive.
i.e.; the lateral strains are opposite in sign to
the axial strain.
The ratio of lateral to axial strains is known as
Poissons ratio, .

Poissons Ratio,
ey
ex

ez
ez
Formostmetals,
0.25<<0.35
intheelasticrange
Furthermore:

E 2G(1 )

Plastic Deformation
ElasticPlastic

ElasticPlastic

Sy

Sy

ElasticPlastic

Stress

Sy

0.002

MostMetalsAl,Cu

0.002

Strain

CladAlAlloys

0.002

LowcarbonSteel

Microstructural Origins of
Plasticity
Slip, Climb and Slide of atoms in the crystal
structure.
Slip and Climb occur at Dislocations and Slide
occurs at Grain Boundaries.

Elastic and Plastic Strain

P (e,S)

e ee e p

Stress

S
ee
E
e p e ee
TotalStrain

Plastic

ep

Strain

ee

Elastic

The0.2%offsetyieldstress
isthestressthatgivesaplastic
(permanent)strainof0.002.

Elastic Recovery
Loading

Reloading

Stress

Loading

Unloading
Unloading

Strain

elasticstrain

Strain

Ductility - EL% & AR%

Elongation

EL%

L f Lo
Lo

x100

Lo

Lf

Area Reduction

AR%

Ao A f
Ao

x100

Ao

Af

EngineeringStress

Ductile Vs Brittle Materials

X
AOnly
Ductile materials will exhibit necking.
X
C
B
Ductile if EL%>8% (approximately)X
Brittle if EL% < 5% (approximately)

Brittle

Ductile

A&B

C&D

EngineeringStrain

Toughness & Resilience

Toughness: A measure of the ability of
a material to absorb energy without
fracture. (J/m3 or N.mm/mm3= MPa)
Resilience: A measure of the ability of a
material to absorb energy without
plastic or permanent deformation.
(J/m3 or N.mm/mm3= MPa)
Note: Both are determined as
energy/unit volume

EngineeringStress,S=P/Ao

Toughness, Ut
Su

Sy

X
ef

Ut S de
o

(S y Su ) EL%

100
2
EngineeringStrain,e=L/Lo)

EngineeringStress,S=P/Ao

Resilience, Ur
Su

Sy

ey

Ur S de
o

ey

Sy e y
2
Sy 2
2E

EngineeringStrain,e=L/Lo)

Typical Mechanical Properties

Metalsinannealed(soft)condition
Material
1040 Steel
1080 Steel
2024 Al Alloy
316 Stainless Steel
70/30 Brass
6-4 Ti Alloy
AZ80 Mg Alloy

Yield Stress
(MPa)
350
380
100
210
75
942
285

Ultimate
Stress (MPa)
520
615
200
550
300
1000
340

Ductility
EL%
30
25
18
60
70
14
11

Elastic Modulus
(MPa)
207000
207000
72000
195000
110000
107000
45000

Poissons
Ratio
0.30
0.30
0.33
0.30
0.35
0.36
0.29

Stress Strain Curves

Bentuk spesimen uji tarik

Mode patahan

Hardness test

Brinell hardness test

Rockwell hardness test
Vickers hardness test
Scleroscope hardness test
Durometer hardness test
Scratch hardness test
Ultrasonic hardness test
Microhardness tests

Rockwell hardness test

Brinell Hardness Test

where
BHN = the Brinell hardness number
F = the imposed load in kg
D = the diameter of the spherical indenter in mm
Di = diameter of the resulting indenter impression in mm

Metode pengukuran kekerasan

Uji impak

Mengapa Mengukur Ketangguhan

Impak?

Pengujian untuk ketangguhan impak,

seperti halnya pengujian Impak Charpy,
telah dikembangkan sebelum teori
mekanika perpatahan tersedia.
Pengujian impak adalah sebuah metode
untuk mengevaluasi ketangguhan relatif
dari bahan-bahan teknik.

Mengapa Mengukur Ketangguhan

Impak?

Pengujian impak Charpy secara kontinyu

digunakan pada saat ini sebagai metode
kontrol kualitas yang ekonomis untuk
memperkirakan sensitifitas takikan dan
ketangguhan impak dari bahan-bahan teknik.
Hal ini biasanya digunakan untuk menguji
ketangguhan logam-logam. Pengujian yang
serupa dapat digunakan untuk polimer,
keramik dan komposit.

Apakah Pengujian Impak Charpy

itu?
Pengujian impak Charpy mengukur energi
yang diserap oleh laju regangan tinggi
perpatahan dari sebuah benda uji bertakik
standar.
Adapun bentuk alat uji dapat dilihat pada
gambar 1 dan bentuk benda uji terlihat
pada gambar 2.

Apakah Pengujian Impak Charpy itu?

Hasil uji impak

Gambar 1. Alat uji

Gambar 2. Benda uji

MEKANISME UJI IMPAK

Apakah Pengujian Impak Charpy itu?

Benda uji dipatahkan dengan benturan

dari sebuah palu pendulum yang berat,
yang jatuh dari jarak tetap (energi
potensial yang konstan) untuk membentur
benda uji dengan kecepatan yang tetap
(energi kinetik yang konstan).
Bahan-bahan yang tangguh (tough)
menyerap banyak energi ketika
dipatahkan dan bahan-bahan yang getas
(brittle) menyerap energi sangat sedikit.

Apakah Energi Impak itu?

Energi impak yang diukur dengan pengujian Charpy
adalah usaha yang dilakukan untuk mematahkan
benda uji.
Pada Impak, spesimen berubah bentuk secara
elastis sampai peluluhan tercapai (deformasi
plastik); dan sebuah zona plastis berkembang pada
takikan. Ketika pengujian dilanjutkan, perubahan
specimen oleh impak menyebabkan usaha pada
zona plastis mengeras.
Hal ini mengingkatkan tegangan dan regangan pada
zona plastis sampai specimen patah.

Mekanisme
Perpatahan

Gambar 4. Struktur mikro mekanisme perpatahan a)

Microvoid Coalescence b) Cleavage

Transisi Ulet ke Getas

Skematik kurva transisi ulet ke getas

Bend tests
Are often used as a means of judging the
suitability of a metal for similar treatment
during a production process.

Solidification and Heat

Treatment
Solidification

Crystal structures
Structure-property
relationships
Heat treatment

Pure Metal Solidification

Temperature remains
constant while grains
grow.
Some metals undergo
allotropic transformation
in solid state.
For example on cooling
bcc -iron changes to
fcc -iron at 1400 C,
which again to bcc iron at 906 C.

Nucleation and Grain Growth

Nucleation;
Homogeneous nucleation: very pure metal, substantial
undercooling (0.2Tm)
Heterogeneous nucleation: nucleation agents (5C
undercooling)
Grain growth
Planar: pure metal
Dendritic: solid solution
Grain size
depends on number of nuclei and cooling rate.

Crystal Nucleation and Growth

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, by Serope Kalpakjian

Crystal Structure of Metals

Atoms arrange themselves into various orderly configuration,
called crystals.
The arrangement of the atoms in the crystal is called crystalline
structure.
The smallest group of atoms showing the characteristic lattice
structure of a particular metal is known as a unit cell.

Crystal Structure of Metals

Slip Systems
Deformation (dislocation) occurs on preferential
crystallographic planes and directions, called slip systems.
The slip plane/direction is the plane/direction with the most
closely packed atoms.

6x2=12

4x3=12

1x3=3

Slip Systems

BCC has 6 slip planes and 2 slip directions per plane (12 slip
systems), but distance between slip planes is small, therefore the
required stress is high. Good Strength and moderate ductility, e.g.
Steel, Titanium, Molybdenum, Tungsten.
FCC has 4 slip planes and 3 slip directions per plane (12 Slip
Systems), but distance between slip planes is larger than BCC.
Therefore, probability of slip is moderate, shear stress to cause slip
is low. Moderate Strength and Good Ductility, e.g., Aluminum,
Copper, Gold, Silver
HCP has 1 slip plane and 3 slip directions on that plane (3 systems).
Low probability of slip. Generally brittle materials, e.g., Beryllium,
Magnesium, and Zinc

Plastic Deformation of Single

Crystals

Theoretical Shear Strength and

Tensile Strength
Theoretical shear stress is the shear stress to cause permanent
deformation in a perfect crystal.

G b
Theoretical
maxor ideal tensile strength
betweenof material
G / 10 ~ G
30 tensile stress
is/the
2 the
a atomic bonds between two neighboring
required to break
atomic planes.

The actual strength of metals is approximately one to two orders of

magnitude lower than the theoretical strengths. The discrepancy
max E in
/ 10terms of imperfections in the crystal structure.
can be explained

Solid Solutions

Most metals are not pure but contain a number of other metallic
or non-metallic elements, either alloying elements or
contaminants. Alloying elements are uniformly distributed in the
base metal, forming a solid solution.
Substitutional solid solution
Interstitial solid solution

Effect of Imperfections

Pure metal: dislocation

Solid solutions
Solute atoms of slightly different size distort the lattice and makes dislocation
propagation more difficult, thus strength increases without necessarily reducing
ductility.
Interstitial elements play a similar role in impeding dislocation mobility although they
can have an embrittling effect.
Interfaces, inclusions, gases

Grain Size Effect

Grain boundaries present
obstacles to dislocation
propagation. Therefore, it is
generally found that the yield
strength of a material
increase with decreasing
grain size according to the
Hall-Petch equation.
However at low strain rate
and close to Tm, dislocation
is resolved by diffusion.
Material deforms by sliding
of grains or reshaping of
grains. Both processes are
easier if grain size is small.

Phase Diagrams
A phase diagram, also called equilibrium diagram or a constitutional
diagram, graphically illustrates the relationships among temperature,
composition, and the phases present in a particular alloy system.

Lever Rule

The composition of various phases in a phase diagram can be

determined by a procedure called the lever rule.

C CL
S
0
S L Cs C L

or

C C0
L
s
S L Cs CL

Example: Calculate the relative proportions of the phases in a CuAg alloy of eutectic composition just below the eutectic temperature.

C E C 71.9 91.2

23.2%
C C 7.9 91.2

The Structure of a Cu-Ag

Solid Solution with 20% Ag

Iron/Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

Nonequilibrium Solidification

Microsegregation or coring

Heat Treatment
Most parts will require heat treatment either after or
during the processing for proper in-service properties
Annealing
Heat to elevated temp, hold, cool
Softens the material and removes stress
Precipitation Hardening
Diffusion of alloys to produce two phase structure that
promote good strength and ductility
(Aging Aluminum for example)
Heat Treatment of Steel

Heat Treatment of Steel

(TTT Diagram)

Summary
Solidification process affects crystal structures which in
turn affect material properties.
Single crystal materials behave very differently than
metal alloys.
The effect of imperfections and grain size in solid
solutions.
Heat treatment can modify material properties by
changing the crystal structure.

Samples
AISI-SAE 1018 0.18 % C
AISI-SAE 1045 0.45 % C
AISI-SAE 1095 0.95 % C
Austenitized at 870C for 2 hours

Heat Treatments

A Furnace Annealed Slow cooled

N - Normalized - Air cooled.
O - Oil Quenched
WQ Water quenched.
WT(370) Water quenched, tempered at 370C
for 1 hour.
WT(705) Water quenched, tempered at 705C
for 1 hour.

Jominy Test
Generally, the faster steel cools, the harder it will
be. The Jominy bar measures the hardenbility of
a steel
Softest

Hardest

Proceed to Furnace Room to:

Quench the samples (except the
normalized ones)
Place the tempering samples into Furnaces
Jominy Test demonstration

Pearlite Formation
Austenite precipitates
Fe3C at Eutectoid
Transformation
Temperature (727C).
When slow cooled, this
is Pearlite (looks like
Mother of Pearl)

Diffusion of Carbon in Pearlite

Morphology of Pearlite
(a)

(a) coarse pearlite

pearlite 3000X

(b)

(b) fine

What About Cooling Rates?

Faster cooling gives non-equilibrium
microconstituents
Bainite
Martensite
And more!

To know what microconstituents are

present, you must look at cooling curve
diagrams

Microconstituents vs. Cooling Rate

In creasing Cooling Rate

Spheroidite: Spherical globs of Fe3C in Ferrite

Pearlite: Layers of ferrite and Fe3C
Course Pearlite
Fine Pearlite

Bainite: 200 500 C Transformation

Martensite: Rapid Cooling

Bainite
Upper (550-350C)
Rods of Fe3C
Lower (350-250C)
Fe3C Precipitates in
Plates of Ferrite
It is still Ferrite and
Cementite! Its just
acicular.

Martensite
Diffusionless
transformation
of FCC to BCT (more
volume!)
Lenticular structure
Very hard & very
brittle.

TTT Diagrams

Full TTT Diagram

The complete TTT
diagram for an
iron-carbon alloy of
eutectoid
composition.
A: austenite
B: bainite
M: martensite
P: pearlite

So Whats a CCT Diagram?

Phase Transformations and Production of
Microconstituents takes TIME.
Higher Temperature = Less Time.
If you dont hold at one temperature and allow
time to change, you are Continuously Cooling.
Therefore, a CCT diagrams transition lines will
be different than a TTT diagram.

Slow Cooling

Time in region
indicates amount of
microconstituent!

Medium Cooling

Cooling Rate, R, is
Change in Temp /
Time C/s

Fast Cooling

This steel is very

hardenable 100%
Martensite in ~ 1
minute of cooling!

What is Tempering?
Martensite needs to be tempered to get better
ductility. This happens when Fe3C is allowed to
precipitate from the supercooled Martensite.

Spheroidite
If tempered for a long
time, Fe3C forms
spheres and grows
inside Ferrite.
Very soft, easy to
machine

So What is Hardenability?
Jominy Bar used to
show how cooling rate
affects hardness
Alloyed steels (Cr, Mo,
Ni, etc.) have higher
hardenbility at same
cooling rates than
carbon steels

Typical Jomminy Curves

4340: Very hardenable, More expensive
1040: Less hardenable, Less expensive

Joining Processes

Joining Processes

Mechanical Joining

Mechanical Fastening Systems

Process feature

Rivetin
g

Selfpiercing
rivets

threade
d
fastener
s

Welding

Speed of operation

Slow

Fast

Slow

Fast

Ease of automation

Mediu
m

Good

Poor

Good

Pre-drilled holes

Yes

No

Yes

No

Dissimilar metals

Suitabl
e

suitable

Suitable

unsuitable

Pre-painted/plastic coated
metals

Suitabl
e

Suitable

Suitable

unsuitable

Consumable part

Rivet

Rivet

Bolts,
screws,
plus
nuts

None

Tool life

Long

Long

Long

Short/mediu
m

Tool cost

High

High

medium

Low

Energy demand

Low

Low

Low

Medium/hig

Welding Process Classification

Pressure
Resistance welding
Friction welding

Cold
pressure
welding

Diffusion welding
Gas pressure
welding etc.

0.5Tm
Pressure welding

Arc welding (SMAW,

GMAW, TIG..etc.)
Oxyfuel-gas welding etc.

Tm
Fusion welding

Temperature

Cold Welding

Lap welding

Butt welding

Explosion welding

Roll bonding

Ultrasonic welding

Diffusion Bonding

Surface structure

Pressure ~10 Mpa,

Temperature ~0.6 Tm
Bonding of Ti alloy at 925 C

Diffusion Bonding/Superplastic
Forming (DB/SPF)

Stop off core sheet.

Diffusion bonding by
applying pressure.
Superplastic forming
by blowing air into
mold.
Process used for Ti6Al-4V and 7475-T6.

Hot Welding

Fusion Welding
Resistance Welding
Spot Welding

(a)

Seam Welding

(b)

Projection Welding

(c)

Fusion Welding
Electric Arc Welding
Nonconsumable-electrode, Consumableelectrode

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Plasma Arc Welding

Gas Metal Arc Welding

Other Fusion Welding Processes

Gas Welding
Electron Beam Welding
Typical
conditions
Laser
Beam Welding

Weld widths: 0.75 3 mm

500 W CO2 laser can weld up to

0.25 mm thick sheet steel

10 kW laser can weld 12.5 mm

steel at 25 mm/s

Moltenmetal

Solid

Conduction mode (<10 W/cm^2)

Key hole mode

Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

Soldering and Brazing

Joint established without melting of the base metal.
Main source of strength is adhesion between filler and base metal.
When filler metal melts below 425 C (800 F) -> soldering, otherwise -> brazing.
Most widely used filler material for soldering (solder) is tin-lead alloy. Sn-Ag, Sn-Sb are used for food applications and stainless steels. Lead free
solders (Sn-Zn and Zn-Al alloys) have been developed.
Filler materials for brazing have higher melting temperatures (45Ag-30Cu-25Zn, etc.).

Adhesive Bonding
Mechanical pretreatment
(grit blasting, grinding, wire
brushing)
Remove dirt, oxides, paint
Surface ionization pretreatment
(changes the polarity of the
surfaces and their energy)
Flame treatment
Corona process
Low-pressure plasma
Degreasing
(uses solvents that evaporate
without residues)
Building up new, active surface by
coating with primers
(for bonding plastics like PP, PE,
PTFE, silicones and many
thermoplastic elastomers)

Contamination on the surfaces of

the substrates reduces adhesion

Joint Design

Distortion in Arc Welding

Distortion occurs in six main forms:
Longitudinal shrinkage
Transverse shrinkage
Angular distortion
Bowing and dishing
Buckling
Twisting

A Real World Example

Summary
Difference between mechanical joining
and welding
Working temperatures of different
welding processes, in terms of Tm
Difference between soldering and
brazing
Property variation in welding zone
Cause of welding distortions

Fusion Welding Processes

Sources of Energy for Fusion Welding

Chemical reactions
Burning gases

Heat from electricity

Arc

Light
LASER

Weld Joint Structure

Characteristics of a typical fusion-weld zone in oxyfuel-gas and arc welding.

Microhardness (HV) profile across a

weld bead.

A fusion joint is far from homogenous. Degree of

inhomogeity increases from pure metals to
multiphase alloys.

Typical weld zone in arc and gas welds

The base material adjacent to the melt boundary is exposed to high

temperatures, and the properties and structure are changed within the
heat-affected zone.

Cold worked base material will show recrystallization in HAZ, with coarse
grain sizes.

In either case, a coarse-grained structure of lower strength exits at the

melt boundary.
Melt

Weldability and Weld Quality

- Welding Defects-

Welding Defects
1. Fusion welding defects due wrong heat input, insufficient
rate of weld metal deposition, and cooling.
2. Lack of bonding or gas porosity due to surface
contaminants, including oxides, oils, etc.
3. Undesirable reactions with surface contaminants
4. Solidification cracks in the weld.
5. Solidification shrinkage coupled with solid shrinkage
imposes internal tensile stresses on the structure, may
lead to distortion.
6. Gases released or formed during welding (eg CO) can
lead to porosity which weakens the joint and acts as a
stress raiser.

Metal Treatment
1. Preheating the weld zone reduces energy input, cooling
rates in the weld and HAZ, reduces differential shrinkage,
residual stresses, and distortion.
2. Postwelding heat treatment of the entire welded structure
a. Stress-relief anneal reduces residual stresses to
acceptable level.
b. Normalizing a steel wipes out most undesirable effects of
welding.
c. Full heat treatment (quenching and tempering of steels)
3. Peening (hammering or rolling) of weld bead improves the
strength of welds.

Oxyacetylene Gas Welding

Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and

cutting operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or
reducing, flame. The gas mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen
and acetylene. (d) The principle of the oxyfuel-gas welding operation.

Oxyacetylene Torch
The acetylene valve is opened first; the
gas is lit with a spark lighter or a pilot
light; then the oxygen valve is opened
and the flame adjusted.

Basic equipment used in oxyfuel-gas welding. To ensure correct connections, all

threads on acetylene fittings are left-handed, whereas those for oxygen are righthanded. Oxygen regulators are usually painted green, and acetylene regulators

Electric Arc Welding

Heat is produced from electric
arc between workpiece and
electrode material for melting
the workpiece material.
AC and DC are used
An Inert gas shields both
electrodes
Most heat energy is due to
electron flow to metal

Heat input H EI
v

Direct Current Electrode Negative

(DCEN): Deeper weld.
Direct Current Electrode Positive
(DCEP): Shallower and Wider

H- heat input, E, Voltage, I, Current, and v the

velocity of the arc travels along the weld line

Electric Arc Welding

- Classification The Electrode
Consumable: melts and serves as a filling material
Non-consumable: does not melt, parent metal is used, or a
separate filler rod
Coated or Uncoated
Coating
Provides a gaseous shield to prevent oxidation
Lowers the voltage needed to establish the arc
May provide slag-blanket to protect the joint
Add alloying elements to enhance the properties of the joint.

Non-Consumable Electrode Arc Welding

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding ( TIG)

Plasma arc welding
Atomic hydrogen welding

Non-Consumable-Electrode Welding:
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding (GTAW)
Nonconsumable gas tungsten
Inert gas welding (TIG)
Weld zone is protected by inert
gas
DC with straight polarity is used
with steel, cast iron, and
stainless
AC with Al, Mg alloys where ac
helps in stripping the oxide
Both hand and automatic
operations are possible
The process demands
considerable skill but produces
very high-quality welds on almost
any material
No weld spatter or slag formation

Consumable Electrode Arc Welding

Processes

Shielded metal arc welding

Submerged arc welding
Gas metal arc welding

Consumable Electrode Arc Welding

Shielded-Metal Arc Welding

Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc welding process.

About 50% of all large-scale industrial welding operations use this
process.

Consumable-Electrode Welding:
Gas Metal-Arc Welding (GMAW) - MIG
Consumable gas metal-arc welding
(MIG)
Consumable electrode is metal which
melts to become part of the weld seam.
Weld zone is protected by a gas or a
flux
No slag is formed
Several layers could be build with little
or no intermediate cleaning
It is suitable for most metals
Wire electrode can be supplied in long,
coiled lengths which allow uninterrupted
welds in any welding position.

Consumable Electrode Arc Welding Gas

- Gas Metal-arc Welding Process-

(a) Schematic illustration of the gas metal-arc welding process,

formerly known as MIG (for metal inert gas) welding. (b) Basic
equipment used in gas metal-arc welding operations.

Other Welding Processes

High Energy Beam Welding
Electron Beam welding (EBW)
Heat is produced by high velocity
electron gun in a narrow beam
No filler material
High rate of heating results in greater
depth and heat-affected zone is very
small
Suitable for welding refractory materials
like: molybdenum and zirconium
Requires a vacuum (limitation)
x-ray will be generated around the
welding gun which may be cancerous

High Energy Beam Welding

LASER Beam welding (LBW)

Uses a focused high power monochromatic
light beam as a source of heat to the metal
Beam can be directed to the welding spot
with a lens
Depth of welding similar to electron beam
welding
Vacuum is not necessary (advantage)
Workpiece usually needs protection by a
gas
Process is suitable for automation
Welding speeds can be upto 7 m/min