Chapter 2

Conduction

Chapter 2

Perpindahan Panas/Heat Transfer

Conduction Heat Transfer

Conduction refers to the transport of energy in a medium (solid, liquid or

gas) due to a temperature gradient.
The physical mechanism is random atomic or molecular activity
Governed by Fouriers law
In this chapter we will learn
The definition of important transport properties and what governs
thermal conductivity in solids, liquids and gases
The general formulation of Fouriers law, applicable to any geometry
and multiple dimensions
How to obtain temperature distributions by using the heat diffusion
equation.
How to apply boundary and initial conditions

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Thermal Properties of Matter

Recall from Chapter 1, equation for heat conduction:

q"x

T1 T2
T
k
k
L
L

The proportionality constant is a transport property, known as

thermal conductivity k (units W/m.K)

Usually assumed to be isotropic (independent of the direction of
transfer): kx=ky=kz=k

Is thermal conductivity different between gases, liquids and solids?

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Thermal Conductivity: Solids

Solid comprised of free electrons and atoms bound in lattice

Thermal energy transported through
Migration of free electrons, ke
Lattice vibrational waves, kl

k k e kl

where

1
ke
electrical resistivity, ( e )

? What is the relative magnitude in pure metals, alloys and non-metallic

solids?

See Figure 2.5, Appendix Tables A.1, A.2 and A.3 text
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Thermal Conductivity: Fluids

Intermolecular spacing is much larger

Molecular motion is random
Thermal energy transport less effective than in solids; thermal
conductivity is lower
Kinetic theory of gases:

k nc

where n the number of particles per unit volume, c the mean

molecular speed and the mean free path (average distance travelled
before a collision)
What are the effects of temperature, molecular weight and pressure?
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Thermal Conductivity: Fluids

Physical mechanisms controlling thermal conductivity not well

understood in the liquid state

Generally k decreases with increasing temperature (exceptions

glycerine and water)

k decreases with increasing molecular weight.

Values tabulated as function of temperature. See Tables A.5 and A.6,

text.

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Thermal Conductivity: Insulators

? How can we design a solid material with low thermal
conductivity?

Can disperse solid material throughout an air space fiber, powder and
flake type insulations
Cellular insulation Foamed systems
Several modes of heat transfer involved (conduction, convection, radiation)
Effective thermal conductivity: depends on the thermal conductivity and
radiative properties of solid material, volumetric fraction of the air space,
structure/morphology (open vs. closed pores, pore volume, pore size
etc.) bulk density (solid mass/total volume) depends strongly on the
manner in which the solid material is interconnected.
See Table A.3.

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Chapter 2

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Thermal Diffusivity
Thermophysical properties of matter:
Transport properties: k (thermal conductivity/heat transfer),
(kinematic viscosity/momentum transfer),
D (diffusion coefficient/mass transfer)
Thermodynamic properties, relating to equilibrium state of a system,
such as density, and specific heat cp.
the volumetric heat capacity cp (J/m3.K) measures the ability of a
material to store thermal energy.
Thermal diffusivity is the ratio of the thermal conductivity to the heat
capacity:

c p

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The Conduction Rate Equation

Recall from Chapter 1:

Heat rate in the

x-direction

Heat flux in the

x-direction

T1(high)

dT
q x kA
dx
q
dT
k
A
dx

q"x

qx

T2 (low)

x1

Chapter 2

x2

We assumed that T varies only

in the x-direction, T=T(x)
Direction of heat flux is normal
to cross sectional area A, where
A is isothermal surface (plane
normal to x-direction)

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The Conduction Rate Equation

In reality we must account for heat transfer in three dimensions

Temperature is a scalar field T(x,y,z)

Heat flux is a vector quantity. In Cartesian coordinates:

q" iq"x jq"y kq"z

for isotropic medium

q"x

T "
T "
T
k
, q y k
, qz k
x
y
z

T
T
T
q k i
j
k
y
z
x

k T

Where three dimensional del operator in cartesian coordinates:

i j k
x
y
z
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Summary: Fouriers Law

It is phenomenological, ie. based on experimental evidence
Is a vector expression indicating that the heat flux is normal
to an isotherm, in the direction of decreasing temperature
Applies to all states of matter
Defines the thermal conductivity, ie.

q"x
k
(T / x )
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The Heat Diffusion Equation

Objective to determine the temperature field, ie. temperature
distribution within the medium.
Based on knowledge of temperature distribution we can
compute the conduction heat flux.
Reminder from fluid mechanics: Differential control volume.

Element of volume:
dx dy dz

We will apply the energy

conservation equation to
the differential control
volume

CV
T(x,y,z)
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Dimensi differential control volume dx, dy dan dz.

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Heat Diffusion Equation

Energy Conservation Equation

E E E dE st E
in
g
out
st (2.1)
dt

E in q x q y q z
E out q x dx q y dy q z dz
where from Fouriers law

x
y
z
y
x
Chapter 2

T
T
k ( dydz )
x
x
T
T
q y kAy
k ( dxdz )
y
y
T
T
qz kAz
k ( dxdy )
z
z
q x kAx

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Heat Diffusion Equation

Thermal energy generation due to an energy source:

Manifestation of energy conversion process (between
thermal energy and chemical/electrical/nuclear energy)

E g q dV

Positive (source) if thermal energy is generated

Negative (sink) if thermal energy is consumed

q ( dx dy dz )

is the rate at which energy is generated per

unit volume of the medium (W/m3)

E st c p
( dx dy dz )

Energy storage term

Represents the rate of change of thermal energy

stored in the matter in the absence of phase change.

c p T / t
Chapter 2

is the time rate of change of the sensible (thermal)

energy of the medium per unit volume (W/m3)
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Heat Diffusion Equation

Substituting into Eq. (2.1):

T
T
T
T
k
k
k
q c p
x x y y y z
t
Net conduction of heat into the CV

rate of
energy
generation
per unit
volume

Heat
Equation
(2.2)

time rate of
change of
thermal
energy per
unit volume

At any point in the medium the rate of energy transfer by conduction into
a unit volume plus the volumetric rate of thermal energy generation must
equal the rate of change of thermal energy stored within the volume
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Heat Diffusion Equation- Other forms

If k=constant

2T 2T 2T q 1 T
2 2
2
k t
x
y
z

k
c p

is the thermal diffusivity

(2.3)

For steady state conditions

T
T
T
k
k
k
q 0
x x y y y z

(2.4)

For steady state conditions, one-dimensional transfer in x-direction

and no energy generation

d dT
dq"x
0
k
0 or
dx dx
dx
Chapter 2

Heat flux is constant in

the direction of transfer

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Cylindrical Coordinate

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Spherical Coordinates

1 2 T
1
T
1

T
T

k
2
kr
2 2
k sin
q c p
2
r r sin r sin

t
r r
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Example
The steady-state temperature distribution in a one-dimensional wall of
thermal conductivity 50 W/m.K and thickness 50 mm is observed to
be T(C)=a+bx2, where a=200C, b=-2000C/m2, and x is in meters.
a) What is the heat generation rate in the wall?
b) Determine the heat fluxes at the two wall faces. In what manner are
these heat fluxes related to the heat generation rate?

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Boundary and Initial Conditions

Heat equation is a differential equation:
Second order in spatial coordinates: Need 2 boundary conditions
First order in time: Need 1 initial condition

Boundary Conditions
Example: a surface is in contact with a melting solid or a boiling liquid
1)
B.C. of first kind (Dirichlet condition):

Ts

T(x,t)
x
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Boundary and Initial Conditions

2)

Example: What happens when an electric heater is attached to a

surface? What if the surface is perfectly insulated?
B.C. of second kind (Neumann condition): Constant heat flux at the
surface
qx

T(x,t)
x

x
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T(x,t)
27

Boundary and Initial Conditions

3) B.C. of third kind: When convective heat transfer occurs at the surface

T , h

T(0,t)
T(x,t)
x

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Example 2.3
A long copper bar of rectangular cross section, whose width w is much greater
than its thickness L, is maintained in contact with a heat sink (for example an
ice bath) at a uniform initial temperature To. Suddenly an electric current is
passed through the bar, and an airstream of temperature T is passed over
the top surface, while the bottom surface is maintained at To. Obtain the
differential equation, the boundary and initial conditions that can be used to
determine the temperature as a function of position and time inside the bar.

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Example
Passage of an electric current through a long conducting rod of radius
ri and thermal conductivity kr results in uniform volumetric heating at a
rate of q . The conducting rod is wrapped in an electrically
nonconducting cladding material of outer radius ro and thermal
conductivity kc, and convection cooling is provided by an adjoining
fluid.
For steady-state conditions, write appropriate forms of the heat
equations for the rod and cladding. Express appropriate boundary
conditions for the solution of these equations.

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Matur thank you 4 your attention.

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