Food Processing

Principles II
CHEM2512

Frying continued

Causes of fat deterioration

Too high a temperature
Access of air
Contamination caused by food residues
Loss of natural antioxidants
Effect of traces of copper

Too high a temperature

If the frying temperature is high, steam
generated during frying causes some hydrolysis
of fat and glycerol and free fatty acids are formed
The latter may undergo dehydration with the
formation of acrolein
This is a simple unsaturated aldehyde having an
unpleasant acrid odour

Acrolein
It is probably present in small quantities in the
smoke from fat
CH2OHCHOHCH2OH CH2=CHCHO + 2H20

Access of air
At high temperatures oxygen in air causes rapid
oxidation and consequent deterioration of oils
used for cooking
Such deterioration is accelerated by light
Provided however that pans used for deep frying
have lids, the hot cooking oil is covered at its
surface by a layer of steam released from the
food being fried and this prevents access of
oxygen to the surface of the oil

Loss of natural antioxidants

Natural oils and fats contain antioxidants that help
prevent oxidative changes which produce rancidity
When food is fried, the concentration of antioxidants is
reduced
In continuous frying, the removal of food reduces the
amount of cooking oil in the pan which further reduces
the amount of antioxidant present
The loss of antioxidants can be reduced by topping up
the cooking oil as frying proceeds and by using fresh oil
regularly

Contamination caused by
food residues
When food is cooked by deep frying, particles of
food become detached and should be removed
from the oil before it is used again for frying
If such food residues are not removed repeated
heating will cause them to become charred and
cause deterioration and darkening of the oil

Effect of traces of copper

Extremely small traces of copper at levels of 0.1
ppm can lead to the development of rancidity in
cooking oil
It is therefore important to use pans made of a
copper free metal, for example stainless steel

http://www.scielo.br/img/revistas/babt/v52n1/a25tab05.g
if

Fat can be damaged by:

Salt (oxidation)
Corrosive metals (oxidation)
Water (hydrolysis)
Heat (polymerization)
Burnt Food Particles

 Repeated use of oils leads to deterioration

The oil used for cooking should be changed
frequently

Frying Oil Analysis by

Liquid Chromatography

Chemical Reactions
Occurring During Frying

Aromatic Compound Formation

CH3

CH

CH CH CH

C H 2 (C H 2) n

C H3

CH

C H3

O2
C H3

CH

CH CH CH

(C H 2) n

OOH
+ R

- ROH
CH3

CH

CH CH CH

CH
O

+ OR

(C H 2) n

C H3

CH3

CH

CH CH CH

(C H 2) n

C H3

O
CH
CH
CH
CH

C
O

(C H2)n

C H3

C H3
- HO 2

(C H 2 ) n

CH3

Aromatic Compound Formation

C H3

(C H 2) 3

C H2 C H

CH

C H2

CH

CH

(C H 2) 7 C O O R

O2
O
C

(C H 2) 7 C O O R

C H2 C H2

(C H 2)2 C H 3

- H2 O
C H2

(C H 2) 6 C O O R

C H2

(C H 2) 2 C H 3

Fat Polymerization
Fats and oils exposed to the atmosphere and to heating
over a long period exhibit polymerization
Polymerization reactions are particularly significant in
frying oils, where prolonged use leads to high molecular
weight compounds which cause foaming and increased
viscosity
Discarded oils are sometimes found to contain as much as
25 % of polymerized material
The most important source in the human diet of lipid
oxidation products is deep fried foods

Minimizing the effects

Frying Temperature and effective control of such
Correct preparation of raw materials in particular
moisture levels
Particulate production and its efficient removal
Minimising contact with air and light
Minimising the effect of trace metals ( copper,
Iron, Brass )

Maintaining fat
1. Store in tightly sealed containers away from
light
2. Cover fryer when not in use
3. Skim food particles during frying
4. Dont salt food over the fryer

5. Food to be fried should be free of excess moisture

6. Dont pre-heat fryer too soon before frying
Turn off when done frying
The longer fat is exposed to heat the shorter its
life

Summary
ENSURE FRYING TEMPERATURES ARE UNDER
EFFECTIVE CONTROL
SIEVE OUT BATTER SCRAPS CONTINUOUSLY
DURING FRYING
FILTER DAILY USING AN EFFICIENT SYSTEM
MELT DOWN SOLID FATS AT LOWER
TEMPERATURES (120 C)

 ENSURE RAW MATERIALS ARE WELL DRAINED AND FREE OF

EXCESS MOISTURE
CHECK THE FUME EXTRACTION SYSTEM FOR OIL BUILD UP ON
A REGULAR BASIS
MINIMISE LIGHT AND AIR INGRESS
EMPTY AND DEEP CLEAN THE FRIER ON A REGULAR BASIS
TOP UP WITH FRESH OIL ON A REGULAR BASIS
DO NOT USE COPPER, IRON OR BRASS UTENSILS IN THE OIL

Factors affecting the choice of fat for frying

Flavour
Spattering properties
Spattering is due to the presence of water in the fat
The water vapourizes on heating and causes the fat
to bubble and froth
When the bubbles burst the fat is said to spatter

 Pure cooking fats do not contain water and so

give smoother frying than butter and margarine
Efforts are usually made to reduce spattering
properties of margarine by the addition of
lecithin, which also improves emulsification

Lecithin

http://www.hcc.mnscu.edu/chem/V.26/page_id_27248.h
tml

Hydrogenation
Many commercial fryer shortenings are fully or
partially hydrogenated.
Hydrogenation is the process of adding hydrogen
to oil, which makes it solid (fully hydrogenated) or
creamy (partially hydrogenated) and resistant to
oxidation and chemical breakdown.

Nutritional changes
When food is fried in oil, some of the fat used as a
heat transfer agent becomes a part of the cooked
product and this affects its nutritional value

Examples
The fat content of raw potatoes is negligible (0.2
g fat/per 100 g potatoes)
The fat content of the potatoes when fried as
chips increases to 7 15 g fat/100g potatoes
depending on the method used for frying

 Such an increase in fat content is clearly of

considerable nutritional significance
Especially in view of the weight of opinion
advocating a reduction in fat intake as an
important health goal

 Experiments to discover how the increase in fat

content of food varies with the way in which
frying is carried out have shown that the increase
can be minimized by :
Using a combination of steaming
Dipping in hot oil
Baking in an oven

 When food is added to very hot oil, there is

evaporation of water and natural juices from the
surface of the food leading to rapid dehydration
of the food surface
This produces the crisp texture and attractive
flavour associated with fried food

Loss of nutrients
Vegetables suffer a greater loss of vitamins when
fried than when they are boiled
Retention of ascorbic acid was found to be
greatest when the potatoes were cooked rapidly
in deep fat
Lowest when they were cooked slowly in shallow
fat

Percentage loss of B vitamins

When meat is fried, some loss of B vitamins
occurs
Vitamin

% Losses

Thiamin

20

Riboflavin

20

Niacin

20

Pyridoxine

20

Panthothenic acid

20

Coating
The purpose of coating or breading food to
be deep fried is two fold:
1. To keep the moisture in the product
2. To keep the fat out of the product

Deep fryer
Fuel can be gas or electric
Fryers are classified by the amount of
shortening they can hold.
Temperature Range : 200 - 400 F
o Most deep- frying is done between 325 and
375F

Frying methods
1. Basket method - Product is placed in the
basket and lowered into the fat in the basket.
2. Double basket method- Same as 1., but a
second basket is placed over the the product to
keep it from floating.
3. Swimming method- product is dropped directly
into the fat and allowed to float freely; usually
done with with battered foods that might stick to
the basket

Schematic Diagram of
Frying System

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S135943111200266
9

Industrial Continuous Frier

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359431112002669

Packaging considerations
Protect against moisture absorption
DH foods hygroscopic
Prevent transmission of water vapour
Physical protection
Prevent crushing
Protection from O2 and light
Photo-oxidation

Fried foods and carcinogens

More than 20 complex heterocyclic amines have
been identified in cooked meat, fish and poultry,
particularly when grilled or fried, as well as in
model systems
These amines are believed to be formed from the
Maillard reaction

 High temperatures (200 300 C) and fairly long

cooking times are required for the formation of
heterocyclic amines
They are not produced during normal stewing,
roasting or baking
2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazle[4,5b]pyridine has been detected at 500 ppb in flame
cooked chicken

Risk
It is difficult to estimate the risk associated of
human cancer from theses compounds in real
food, as opposed to model systems
One current estimate is 1 in 10000 over a normal
lifetime and for typical consumption of food
cooked at high temperatures

Acrylamide
In recent years food chemists have become
aware of another potentially hazardous food
contaminant, acrylamide
Acrylamide is also shown to arise in the Maillard
reaction

Typical levels of acrylamide

Potato products

Acrylamide (g/kg)

Raw or boiled

< 30

Baked

190

Chips

310

French fries

480

Crisps

1050

Cereal products
Wheat flour

Acrylamide (g/kg)
< 30

Bread

30

Toast

75

Breakfast cereals

180

Popcorn

400

Rye crispbread

2000

Cereal products

Acrylamide (g/kg)

Others
Coffee

420

Dry roasted peanuts

30

Chicken nuggets

23

Hamburgers

15

 In spite of the prevailing confidence of

responsible authorities around the world that the
level of acrylamide in human diets does not
constitute a hazard, considerable attention has
been devoted to discovering how it is formed and
what modifications to current food processing
procedures might reduce it

Asparagine
It is now generally accepted that the amino acid,
asparagine is the source of acrylamide in a
variation of the Strecker degradation
Unfortunately for those seeking to reduce the
levels of acrylamide formation, free asparagine
when it is not a component of proteins, is
particularly abundant in potatoes

Potatoes
On a weight basis asparagine can constitute over
30 % of the total free amino acids in potatoes,
(0.2 0.6 g) per 100 g of their fresh weight
Asparagine is recognized as a major contributor
to the flavour of potatoes and potato products
The high temperatures involved in frying (over
120 C) which are critical to acrylamide
generation are also essential for the desirable
flavours and textures of crisps and chips

Reducing asparagine levels

Asparaginase is obtained commercially from the
fungus Aspergillus niger
It catalyzes the removal of the side chain amino
group converting asparagine to aspartate
It can be incorporated into dough and it could
therefore prove valuable in the manufacture of
some baked products

Fried Products
Instant Noodles
Potato chips
Donuts

Instant Noodles
PFC(Protein/Fat/Carbohydrate) proportion of a
typical instant noodle is 9%, 36% and 55%
Potato chips
High calorie and high salt
Donuts
High calorie and high sugar

Donuts

Chips

Ramen soup

New Technologies
Microwave enhanced deep fryer

http://image.made-in-china.com/2f0j00gvNawdhzMkWs/Microwave-FryerMachine-MWF-B2040B-23-.jpg

 Combination of microwave energy and frying

Used to produce fried goods such as chips,
noodles and chicken
60 % Reduced time
50 % Reduced fat content
33 60 % Energy saving

Video clip
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ho-Az4mhaXY