EXPERIMENTATION

Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

DEFINITION OF EXPERIMENT
Experiment is a method for collection of primary
information, in which we manipulate and/or control one
or more independent variables and measure their effect
on one or more dependent variables.

Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

CONCEPT OF CAUSALITY
Ordinary Meaning

Scientific Meaning

X is the only cause of Y.

number of possible

X is only one of a
causes of Y.

X must always lead to Y

The occurrence of X makes the
occurrence
of Y more probable
It is possible to prove We can never prove that that X is a cause
of Y. X is a cause of Y. At
best, we can infer that X
is a cause of Y.

Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

CONDITIONS FOR CAUSALITY

Concomitant variation

The time order of occurrence condition

The absence of other possible causal factors

Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

TERMS OF EXPERIMENT
Independent variable - that is manipulated and which effect
is measured
Dependent variable - that measure the effect of the
independent variable
Extraneous variables - are all variables other than the
independent variable that affect the
response of the test units.
Test units - are individuals, organisations or other entities
whose response to the independent variable is
being examined.
Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

VALIDITY OF EXPERIMENT
Internal validity - measures whether the manipulation
of the independent variables
actually causes the effects on the
dependent variable.
External validity - measures whether the cause-andeffect relationships found in the
experiment can be generalised.

Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

THREATS OF INTERNAL VALIDITY

History specific events that are external to the experiment ,
but occur at the same time as the experiment.

Maturation refers to changes in the test units themselves

as the people become tired, bored or even older.

Testing occurs when a prior observation affects a latter

observation.

Interaction occurs when a prior measurement increases

the test units interest to the experimental variable.

Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

THREATS OF INTERNAL VALIDITY

Statistical regression occur when test units with extreme
scores move closer to the average score during the experiment.

Instrumentation refers to changes in the measuring

instrument.

Mortality refers to the loss of test units while the

experiment is in progress.

Selection error occurs when there is no way of certifying

that groups of test units were equivalent prior to being tested.

Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

EXTERNAL VALIDITY
External validity depends on existence of
internal validity
Response error
Non-representativeness

Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

A CLASSIFICATION OF
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Pre-experimental designs do not control threats of
internal validity: the one-shot case study, the one-group
pretest-posttest design, and the static-group.
In true experimental designs, the researcher can
randomly assign test units to experimental groups and
treatments to experimental groups: the pretest-posttest
control group design, the posttest-only control group
design, the Solomon four-group design, and the time
series method.
Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

ONE-SHOT CASE STUDY

X 01
A single group of test units is exposed to a
treatment X.
A single measurement on the dependent variable is
taken (01).
There is no random assignment of test units.
The one-shot case study is more appropriate for
exploratory than for conclusive research.
Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

ONE-GROUP PRETEST-POSTTEST
DESIGN
01

02

A group of test units is measured twice.

There is no control group.
The treatment effect is computed as 02 01.
The validity of this conclusion is questionable
since threats of internal validity are largely
uncontrolled.
Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

STATIC GROUP DESIGN

EG:
CG:

01
02

A two-group experimental design.

The experimental group (EG) is exposed to the
treatment, and the control group (CG) is not.
Measurements on both groups are made only after the
treatment.
Test units are not assigned at random.
The treatment effect would be measured as 01 - 02.
Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

PRETEST-POSTTEST CONTROL
GROUP DESIGN
EG: R
CG: R

01
03

X
04

02

Test units are randomly assigned to either the

experimental or the control group.
A pre-treatment measure is taken on each group.
The treatment effect (TE) is measured as:
(02 - 01) - (04 - 03).
Selection error is eliminated by randomization.
Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

POSTTEST-ONLY CONTROL GROUP

DESIGN
EG : R X 01
CG :

02

The treatment effect is obtained by:

TE = 01 - 02
Except for pre-measurement, the implementation of
this design is very similar to that of the pretestposttest control group design.

Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

SOLOMON FOUR GROUP METHOD

Experimental group 1:
Control group 1:
Experimental group 2:
Control group 2:

Prof. Vytautas Dikius

R O1 X O2
R O3
O4
R
X O5
R
O6

Essentials of Marketing Research

TIME SERIES DESIGN

01 02 03 04 05 X 06 07 08 09 010
There is no randomization of test units to
treatments.
The treatment effect is obtained by:
TE = 06 - 01

Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

MULTIPLE TIME SERIES DESIGN

EG : 01 02 03 04 05 X 06 07 08 09 010
CG : 01 02 03 04 05

06 07 08 09 010

If the control group is carefully selected, this design

can be an improvement over the simple time series
experiment.

Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

LABORATORY VERSUS FIELD

EXPERIMENTS
Factor

Laboratory

Field

Environment

Artificial

Realistic

Control

High

Low

Reactive Error

High

Low

Demand Artifacts

High

Low

Internal Validity

High

Low

External Validity

Low

High

Time

Short

Long

Number of Units

Small

Large

Ease of Implementation

High

Low

Cost

Low

High

Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

LIMITATIONS OF EXPERIMENTATION
Experiments can be time consuming
Experiments are often expensive.
Experiments can be difficult to administer.
Competitors may deliberately contaminate the
results of a field experiment.
Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research

LITERATURE
Malhotra, 6th ed. p. 250 264; 267-271.

Prof. Vytautas Dikius

Essentials of Marketing Research