ENDOCRINE PHYSIOLOGY

Endocrine Physiology

Dr.P.Sn.Raju
Asst Prof , Physiology
Andhra medical college

ENDOCRINE PHYSIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Endocrine Gland
Hormones
Hormone receptors
Chemical structure & synthesis
Hormone secretion, transport and clearance
Feed back control
Mechanism of action

Bodys Two Major Regulatory Systems

The endocrine system is one of the bodys two major

regulatory systems. The other one is the nervous
system.
In general, nervous system coordinates rapid,
precise responses and is especially important in
mediating the bodys interaction with the external
environment.
The endocrine, by contrast, primarily controls
activities that require duration rather than speed. It
regulates, coordinates, and integrates cellular and
organ function at distance.

NERVOUS & ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS

NERVOUS SYSTEM
WIRED
CHEMICAL SIGNAL
AT TARGET CELL
RAPID
BRIEF DURATION
CLOSE ANATOMICAL
PROXIMITY

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

WIRELESS
CHEMICAL SIGNAL
IN BLOOD.
SLOW
LONG DURATION
SPECIFIC
RECEPTORS

LOCATION OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS

ORGAN

HORMONES

HEART

ANP

GIT

CCK-PZ,
SECRETIN, VIP

KIDNEY

ERYTHROPOIE
TIN, 1,25-DHCC

PINEAL GLAND

MELATONIN

SKIN

CALCIFEROL(V
it-D3)

LIVER

IGF-I, II

PLATELET

PDGF

LYMPHOCYTES IL

Endocrine Glands

Organs and Tissues of the Endocrine System.

Endocrine Glands

Organs and Tissues of the Endocrine System.

The Functions of Endocrine System

1. Regulating organic metabolism , H2O and
electrolyte balance, which are important collectively
in maintaining a constant internal environment.
2. Inducing adaptive changes to help the body cope up
with stressful situations.
3. Promoting smooth, sequential growth and
development.
4. Controlling reproduction.
5. Regulating red blood cell production.
6. Along with the autonomic nervous system,
controlling and integrating activities of both the
circulatory and digestive systems.

Endocrine Gland ?
Gland is structure which produces something.
Endocrine Glands might be small but of great
importance.
Terms : Endon within , Krinein- to separate.
Called as Ductless glands.
Uses chemical signals for cell to cell
communication
Coordinates the function of cells
Response to an endocrine signal occurs within
minutes to hours

Chemical Regulating Systems: Overview

Pheromones Behavior altering agents,
organism to organism communication.
Hormones:
Hormonein greek term , to Arouse
to Stimulate
cell to cell communication molecules
Made in gland(s) or cells
Transported by blood
Distant or local target tissue receptors
Activates physiological response

Types of hormones
Functional
Endocrine Hormones Travel through the blood to act at
a site distant from the secreting cell or gland
Paracrine Hormones Act on cells near the secreting cell
Autocrine Hormones Act on the secreting cell
Neurocrine Hormones Secreted by neural cells
neurotransmitters
neurohormones

Chemical
Protein & Polypeptide
Amine (amino acid derived)
Steroid

Chemical Messenger

The multiple activities of the cells, tissues, and

organs of the body are coordinated by the interplay
of several types of chemical messenger systems.
Several types of chemical messenger systems:
a. Neurotransmitters are released by axon
terminals of neurons into the synaptic junctions
and act locally to control nerve cell functions.
Example: acetylcholine.
b. Endocrine hormones are released by glands or
specialized cells into the circulating blood and
inuence the function of cells at another location
in the body.

Chemical Messenger
c. Neuroendocrine hormones are secreted by neurons into the
circulating blood and inuence the function of cells at another
location in the body. Examples: oxytocin, vasopressin.
d. Paracrines are secreted by cells into the extracellular uid and
affect neighboring cells of a different type. Example: somatostatin
secreted by delta cells in the pancreas.
e. Autocrines are secreted by cells into the extracellular uid and
affect the function of the same cells that produced them by binding
to cell surface receptors. Examples: somatomedin, some growth
factors.
f. Cytokines are peptides secreted by cells into the extracellular uid
and can function as autocrines, paracrines, or endocrine hormones.
Example: interleukins.

Intercellular Communication
Endocrine

Cell

Hormone

Neuroendocrine

Target Cell

Blood

Neuron

Hormone
Target Cell

Blood
Hormone

Paracrine

Cell

Hormone

Interstitial Fluid

Hormone

Autocrine

Hormone

Cell

Hormone

Target Cell

Interstitial Fluid

Long Distance Communication: Endocrine

Hormones

Signal Chemicals
Made in endocrine cells

Transported via blood

Receptors on target cells

Neuro hormones

Paracrine and Autocrine Hormones

Local communication
Signal chemicals
diffuse to target
Example: Cytokines
Autocrinereceptor
on same cell
Paracrine
neighboring cells

Classes of Hormones

Peptide & Protein Hormones

Steroid Hormones
Amine Hormones

Hormones - A Structural Classification

Classes of Hormones

Based on their solubility in water or lipid:

a. Water-soluble hormones (hydrophilic):Polar
substances - peptides and catecholamines.
b. Lipid-soluble hormones (lipophilic):Non Polar steroid and thyroid hormones.

Hormone Receptors
The locations for the different types of hormone
receptors are generally the following:
a. In or on the surface of the cell membrane. The
membrane receptors are specic mostly for the
protein, peptide, and catecholamine hormones.
b. In the cell cytoplasm. The primary receptors for
the different steroid hormones are found mainly in
the cytoplasm.
c. In the cell nucleus. The receptors for the thyroid
hormones are found in the nucleus and are believed to
be located in direct association with one or more of
the chromosomes.

Receptor locations
Cell membrane
Lipophobic ligand can't
enter cell
Outer surface receptor
Fast response

Cytosolic or Nuclear
Lipophilic ligand enters
cell
Often activates gene
Slower response

Plasma Concentration
Plasma concentration of a hormone is influenced by:
a. Hormone secretion.
b. Peripheral hormone conversion. Example: T4 T3 (more active).
c. Hormone transport (bound or unbound to plasma protein).
d. Hormone inactivation.
. Peptide hormones are inactivated by hydrolysis of peptide
bonds; or engulfed and degradaded intracellularly.
. Catecholamines are enzymatically converted into inactive
forms.
. Lipophilic hormones are inactivated by alteration of the active
portions, and liver adds charged groups to make them water
soluble.
e. Hormone excretion by liver and kidneys.

Hormone Clearance
Metabolic Clearance Rate (MCR)
Hormone must be turned off when served purpose.
Defines the quantitative removal of hormone from
plasma
The bulk of hormone is cleared by liver and kidneys
Only a small fraction is removed by target tissue
protein and amine hormones bind to receptors and
are internalized and degraded
Steroid and thyroid hormones are degraded after
hormone-receptor complex binds to nuclear
chromatin.
99% of excreted hormone is degraded or conjugated by
Phase I and Phase II enzyme systems

MCR OF SOME HORMONES

T1/2 Time taken for half of the dose to be eliminated or metabolised.
Hormone

Half-life

Amines

2-3 min

Thyroid hormones: T4
T3

6.7 days
0.75 days

Polypeptides

4-40 min

Proteins

15-170 min

Steroids

4-120 min

Down Regulation

When the plasma concentration of

hormone is chronically elevated, the
total number of target-cell receptor
for hormone is gradually reduced as a
direct result of the effect a sustained
elevation of hormone has on the
hormone receptors.
This phenomenon prevents the target
cells from overreacting to a prolonged
high concentration of hormone.

Down Regulation
This down-regulation of the receptors can occur as a result of:

1. Inactivation of some of the receptor molecule.

2. Inactivation of some of the intracellular protein signaling
molecules.
3. Temporary sequestration of the receptor to the inside of the
cell, away from the site of action of hormones that interact
with cell membrane receptors.
4. Destruction of the receptors by lysosomes after they are
internalized.
5. Decreased production of the receptors.
In each case, receptor down-regulation decreases the target
tissues responsiveness to the hormone.

Endocrine Disorders
Too Little Hormone Activity
Too little hormone secreted by

Too Much Hormone Activity

Too much hormone secreted by

the endocrine gland

the endocrine gland

(hyposecretion)*

(hypersecretion)*

Increased removal of the hormone Reduced plasma protein binding

from the blood
Abnormal tissue responsiveness to
the hormone

of the hormone (too much free,

biologically active hormone)
Decreased removal of the

Lack of target-cells receptors

hormone from the blood

Lack of an enzyme essential to

Decreased inactivation

the target-cell response

Decreased excretion

*Most common causes of endocrine dysfunction

Synergism
Synergism occurs when
the actions of several
hormones are
complementary and their
combined effect is
greater than the sum of
their separate effects.
Example: FSH and
testosterone are required
for maintaining the
normal rate of sperm
production.

Permissiveness
With permissiveness, one
hormone must be present in
adequate amounts for the full
exertion of another hormones
effect.
In essence, the first hormone,
by enhancing a target cells
responsiveness to another
hormone, permits this other
hormone to exert its full effect.
Example: thyroid hormones
increases the number of
receptors for epinephrine.

Antagonism
Antagonism occurs when
one hormone causes the
loss of another hormones
receptors, reducing the
effectiveness of the second
hormone.
Example: progesterone
inhibits uterine
responsiveness to estrogen
during pregnancy, by
causing loss of estrogen
receptors.

Feedback Loops

Negative Feedback Controls:

Long & Short Loop Reflexes

Endocrine Reflex Pathways: Overview

Neuroendocrine Reflexes
Many endocrine control systems
involve neuroendocrine reflexes,
which include neural as well as
hormonal components.
The purpose of such reflexes is to
produce a sudden increase in
hormone secretion in response to a
specific stimulus, frequently a
stimulus external to the body.
For example is the increased
secretion of cortisol, the stress
hormone, by the adrenal cortex
during a stress response.

Protein and Polypeptide Hormones

Gland/Tissue

Hormones

Gland/Tissue

Hormones

Hypothalamus

TRH,GnRH,CRH
GHRH,Somatostatin,

Placenta

HCG,HCSorHPL

Anteriorpituitary

ACTH,TSH,FSH,LH,
PRL,GH

Kidney

Renin

Posteriorpituitary

Oxytocin,ADH

Heart

ANP

Thyroid

Calcitonin

G.I.tract

Pancreas

Insulin,Glucagon,
Somatostatin

Gastrin,CCK,
Secretin,GIP,
Somatostatin

Liver

SomatomedinC(IGF1)

Adipocyte
Adrenalmedulla

Parathyroid
PTH

Leptin
Norepinephrine,
epinephrine

Protein and Polypeptide Hormones:

Synthesis and Release

Protein and Polypeptide Hormones:

Synthesis and Release

Protein and Polypeptide Hormone Receptors

Binds to surface
receptor
Transduction
System activation
Open ion channel
Enzyme activation
Second messenger
systems
Protein synthesis

Amine Hormones
Derived from the amino acid tyrosine
Gland/Tissue

Hormones

Hypothalamus

Dopamine

Thyroid

T3,T4

Adrenalmedulla

NE,EPI

Amine Hormone Structure

Amine Hormone Synthesis

tyrosine
hydroxylase

Tyrosine

L-Dopa
dopa decarboxylase
Dopaminergic
Neurons

Dopamine

dopamine
-hydroxylase

Norepinephrine
phenylethanolamineN-methyltransferase

Epinephrine
Adrenal Glands

Thyroid Hormones
Thyroid Gland

Steroid Hormones
Gland/Tissue
AdrenalCortex

Hormones
Cortisol,Aldosterone,
Androgens

Testes
Testosterone
Ovaries
Estrogens,Progesterone
CorpusLuteum
Estrogens,Progesterone
Placenta
Estrogens,Progesterone
Kidney
1,25Dihydroxycholecalciferol

Steroid Hormones: Structure

Steroid Hormones: Characteristics

Are made from cholesterol, are lipophilic & can
enter target cell
Are immediately released from cell after
synthesis
Interact with cytoplasmic or nuclear receptors
Activate DNA for protein synthesis
Are slower acting and have longer half-life than
peptide hormones
Examples: cortisol, estrogen & testosterone

Steroid Hormones: Action

Mechanisms of action
Steroid & Thyroid hormone mechanisms

Summary

Endocrine glands throughout body are key to

chemical integration and homeostasis
Protein, polypeptide and amine hormones are
plasma soluble and target membrane
Surface receptors transduce signals into cell and
activate via second messengers

Summary

Most steroid and some amine hormones are

lipophilic, can pass into cell, bind on cytoplasmic
or nuclear receptors and activate DNA for protein
synthesis
Hypothalamus, pituitary trophic hormone
pathways coordinate endocrine regulation

Hormones and Their Functions