Chapter 2

Linear Systems
Topics:
Review of Linear Systems

Linear Time-Invariant Systems

Impulse Response
Transfer Functions
Distortionless Transmission

Huseyin Bilgekul
Eeng360 Communication Systems I
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Eastern Mediterranean University

Linear Time-Invariant Systems

An electronic filter or system is Linear when Superposition holds,
that is when,
y (t ) l[a1 x1 (t ) a2 x2 (t )] a1l[ x1 (t )] a2l[ x2 (t )]
Where y(t) is the output and x(t) = a1x1(t)+a2x2(t) is the input.
l[.] denotes the linear (differential equation) system operator acting on [.].

y (t ) x(t ) h(t )
Y ( f ) X ( f )H ( f )

If the system is time invariant for any delayed input x(t t0), the
output is delayed by just the same amount y(t t0).
That is, the shape of the response is the same no matter when the
input is applied to the system.

Impulse Response
x(t)

Impulse Response

The linear time-invariant system without delay blocks is described by a linear

ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients and may be
characterized by its impulse response h(t).
The impulse response is the solution to the differential equation when the
forcing function is a Dirac delta function.
y(t) = h(t) when x(t) = (t).

In physical networks, the impulse response has to be causal.

h(t) = 0 for t < 0

Generally, an input waveform may be approximated by taking samples of the

input at t-second intervals.

Then using the time-invariant and superposition properties, we can obtain the
approximate output as

This expression becomes the exact result as t becomes zero. Letting nt = ,

we obtain

Transfer Function
The output waveform for a time-invariant network can be obtained by convolving
the input waveform with the impulse response of the system.
The impulse response can be used to characterize the response of the system in
the time domain.
The spectrum of the output signal is obtained by taking the Fourier transform of
both sides. Using the convolution theorem,

Y ( f ) X ( f ) H ( f ) or

Y( f )
H( f )
X(f )

Where H(f) = [h(t)] is transfer function or frequency response of the network.

The impulse response and frequency response are a Fourier transform pair:

h(t ) H ( f )
Generally, transfer function H(f) is a complex quantity and can be written in polar form.

Transfer Function
The |H(f)| is the Amplitude (or magnitude) Response.
The Phase Response of the network is

Since h(t) is a real function of time (for real networks), it follows

1. |H(f)| is an even function of frequency and
2. (f) is an odd function of frequency.

Output for Sinusoidal and periodic Inputs

Sinusoidal Input Sinusoidal Output with magnitude and phase change

x(t ) A cos ot

y (t ) AH ( f o ) cos o t H ( f o )

Any Periodic Input All the componets of the output with magnitude and phase changes
X( f )

c ( f nf

Y( f )

c H (nf

x(t ) D0 Dn cos( not n ) y(t) D0 H (0)

n 1

) ( f nf o )

D H (nf ) cos n t +H (nf )

Power Transfer Function

Derive the relationship between the power spectral density (PSD) at the input,
Px(f), and that at the output, Py(f) , of a linear time-invariant network.
Using the definition of PSD

XT ( f )
Px ( f ) lim
T
T

PSD of the output is

Using transfer function
in a formal sense, we obtain

Thus, the power transfer

function of the network is

Gh ( f )

Py ( f )
Px ( f )

H( f )

Example 2.14 RC Low Pass Filter

x(t ) Ri (t ) y (t ) from KVL

dy
dy
i (t ) C
RC y (t ) x(t )
dt
dt
RC ( j 2 f )Y ( f ) Y ( f ) X ( f ) Using Fourier Transform
Y( f )
1
H( f )

Transfer Function of RC
X ( f ) 1 j (2 RC ) f
1 t
e o to

1
h (t ) H ( f ) o
Impulse Response where o RC

t0
0
1
2
Gh ( f ) H ( f )
Power Transfer Function
2
1 f
fo

fo 1
(3dB Frequency), Gh ( f o ) 1
2 RC
2

Example 2.14 RC Low Pass Filter

3dB Point

Distortionless Transmission
No Distortion if y(t)=Ax(t-Td) Y(f)=AX(f)e-j2fTd
For no distortion at the output of an LTI system, two requirements must be satisfied:
1.

2.

The amplitude response is flat.

|H(f)| = Constant = A

( No Amplitude Distortion)

The phase response is a linear function of frequency.

(f) = <H(f) = -2fTd
(No Phase Distortion)

Second requirement is often specified equivalently by using the time delay.

We define the time delay of the system as:

If Td(f) is not constant, there is phase distortion,

Because the phase response (f), is not a linear function of frequency.

Example 2.15 Distortion Caused By an RC filter

For f <0.5f0, the filter will provide almost distortionless transmission.

The error in the magnitude response is less than 0.5 dB.
The error in the phase is less than 2.18 (8%).
For f <f0,
The error in the magnitude response is less than 3 dB.
The error in the phase is less than 12.38 (27%).
In engineering practice, this type of error is often considered to be tolerable.

Example 2.15 Distortion Caused By a filter

The magnitude response of the RC filter is not constant.
Distortion is introduced to the frequencies in the pass band below frequency fo.

Example 2.15 Distortion Caused By a filter

The phase response of the
RC filter is not a linear
function of frequency.
Distortion is introduced to
the frequencies in the pass
band below frequency fo.

The time delay across the

RC filter is not constant for
all frequencies.
Distortion is introduced to
the frequencies in the pass
band below frequency fo.